tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-62371384431134301192024-03-14T06:39:06.485+11:00TasteMattersThe science of food perception and preference John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.comBlogger42125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-9580399752473249102017-01-10T15:32:00.002+11:002017-02-07T15:31:03.385+11:00The moon & vinous<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; line-height: normal;">
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
I went to the supermarket yesterday. Strangely enough, not a single shop assistant wanted to talk to me about the provenance of my muesli, or milk, or even the organic* Brussels sprouts that I bought. Even at the checkout, I wasn’t told about the family history of the growers of the herbs that I bought. Compare this experience, however, with the previous day at my wine shop of choice where I had merely to linger in front of a bottle to set off a detailed account of the exciting new techniques employed by the daughter of a famous Burgundy family, who had set up her own winery, using bio-something ….., grown in soil that ….., with annual rainfall of …… Details here are sketchy, mainly because I had tuned out by this stage. What I really wanted to know was it a good value wine and was a typical of the style of the region (really just a proxy question for: will it taste good?)?</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
But wine is a special product, apparently. Aficionados turn their noses up at the thought that wine makers might actually cater to consumer preferences, whereas to do the same with FMCGs (<i>Frankly Mediocre</i> etc etc) means commercial death. We are encouraged to think about wine (and to some extent beers and cheeses) as artisanal products whose authenticity and provenance are key to the product experience (as well as being key to our own sense of good taste). Wines – at least for the serious drinker – are meant to be special, and hence how the vines are grown and cared for, the soil in which they are grown, and the techniques used to create the final product are relevant to the enjoyment of that product.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
It is not really surprising that such an intense level of interest in the minutiae of wine production generates its own mythology. In addition, though, it has also plugged into the concerns of the day, in particular the desire for the special qualities of being ‘organic’. Organic certification officially relates to the amount of pesticide residues present in the soil or plant, but has recently come to mean all things to all people: healthy, safe, sustainable, ethical, holistic, eco-friendly, and most importantly perhaps, natural. All of which add up to a warm inner glow for the consumer. The question of whether organic produce is actually safer or healthier for us has not been settled (especially since the vast majority of toxins in plants are generated by the plants themselves). Nor has the key question of whether it tastes better [1]. It might, but this could merely be a by-product of the greater devotion of the organic grower, rather than lower pesticides <i>per se</i>.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #58585b; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
<span style="color: black;">Increasingly, wine producers and consumers both have become interested in the extras special qualities of wines made according to biodynamic principles. Sometimes referred to as “deep organics” biodynamic growers use organic principles but, in addition: “</span>Biodynamic practitioners also recognize and strive to work in cooperation with the <b>subtle influences of the wider cosmos</b> on soil, plant and animal health” (<a href="https://www.blogger.com/%22"><span style="color: #0079cd;">https://www.biodynamics.com/what-is-biodynamics)</span></a>. In practice, this means growing according to the phases of the moon. Tasting wines, too, is meant to be optimised according to the same lunar principles. This might reflect nothing more than the harmless obsession of bearded men in corduroy trousers except for the fact that, as pointed out in a recent publication by Wendy Parr and colleagues in <i>Plos One</i> [2], large wine buying chains such as Tesco in the UK are now organising their wine tasting according to whether the day is <span style="color: black;">good (Flower days; Fruit days) or bad (Leaf days; Root days) according to a lunar calendar. Which is fine but for the fact that the wines consumers will be buying is influenced by ….. what? Astrology? Mysticism?</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
Parr and colleagues set out to test the central biodynamic claim that the flavour of wines is influenced by the lunar cycle. This is no small task, and required the application of strict scientific protocols for assessing flavour of a range of Pinot Noir wines using wine experts, blind to the purpose of the study, to tasting carried out according to dates derived from the standard biodynamic calendar for wine drinkers. The wines themselves differed considerably across the range of sensory and quality attributes that the judges were asked to rate – evidence that the evaluation itself was successfully discriminating the subtle variations between the different Pinot Noirs. But what did not show a difference between wines was whether or not the wines were tasted on ‘good’ or ‘bad’ biodynamic days.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
Wine lore is of course replete with claims about the sources of wine qualities. Mineral soils are said to give rise to mineral qualities or, more generally, wine flavour is a function of the “terroir” in which the grapes are grown. Such claims reinforce the romantic idea of the importance the wine’s provenance and as a consequence its authenticity and its connection to the soil and to nature. But they tend to ignore the fact the winemaker wants to produce a particular style of wine. Moreover, when tested scientifically, these ideas receive little support [3, 4].</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
But why does it matter if fairly implausible biodynamic claims are shown not to hold water (or wine)? As Parr at al. note, their study is an example of testing claims in the food and beverage industries that are based either on anecdote or “received wisdom”. We recognise that there is a world of alternative health remedies – homeopathy and aromatherapy, for example – that ought to be tested and it is usually not surprising when they fail scientific scrutiny. We don’t want medicine based on anecdote. It is perhaps less obvious that our foods and beverages are subject to the same unscientific claims, either for marketing purposes or to cater for consumer beliefs that have no basis in fact. Labelling a product as MSG-free or, more recently, gluten-free** is about accessing the consumer’s lack of knowledge about food ingredients while appealing to the idea that foods can be more natural. Perhaps this does no immediate harm, but muddled thinking is not the basis for evaluating dietary choices that have important potential health outcomes.</div>
</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; min-height: 14px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal; min-height: 14px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13px; line-height: normal;">
* Just joking</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13px; line-height: normal;">
** With the obvious exception of the 1% of the population with coeliac disease</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13px; line-height: normal;">
<span style="text-decoration: underline;">______________________________________________________________________</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13px; line-height: normal;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="text-indent: -36px;"><o:p> </o:p></span><span style="font-size: 11pt; text-indent: -36px;"> </span></div>
<div style="font-family: calibri; line-height: normal; margin-left: 36px; text-align: left; text-indent: -36px;">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
<o:PixelsPerInch>96</o:PixelsPerInch>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-GB</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="false"
DefSemiHidden="false" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="382">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footer"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of figures"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope return"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="line number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="page number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of authorities"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="macro"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Mention"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Smart Hyperlink"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0in;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Calibri;
mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-fareast-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<br />
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 1.0pt; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">1.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Bourn, D. and J. Prescott, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A
comparison of the nutritional value, sensory qualities and food safety of
organically and conventionally produced foods. </i>Crit Rev Food Sci Nutrit,
2002. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">42</b>: p. 1-34.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 1.0pt; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">2.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Parr, W.V., et al., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Expectation
or Sensorial Reality? An Empirical Investigation of the Biodynamic Calendar for
Wine Drinkers.</i> Plos One, 2017. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">12</b>(1):
p. e0169257.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 1.0pt; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">3.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Parr, W.V., et al., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Perceived
minerality in sauvignon blanc wine: Chemical reality or cultural construct?</i>
Food Research International, 2016. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">87</b>:
p. 168-179.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: -17.0pt; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
<o:PixelsPerInch>96</o:PixelsPerInch>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-GB</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="false"
DefSemiHidden="false" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="382">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footer"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of figures"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope return"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="line number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="page number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of authorities"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="macro"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Mention"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Smart Hyperlink"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0in;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Calibri;
mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-fareast-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<!--EndFragment--></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 1.0pt; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">4.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Springhall, S., et al. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Multidimensional
sorting applied to understanding flavour variations in Chardonnay wines </i>in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">5th Australasian Association of Chemosensory
Science Annual Scientific Meeting</i>. 2002. Heron Island.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment-->
<!--EndFragment--></div>
<div style="font-family: calibri; line-height: normal; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
<o:PixelsPerInch>96</o:PixelsPerInch>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-GB</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="false"
DefSemiHidden="false" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="382">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footer"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of figures"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope return"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="line number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="page number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of authorities"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="macro"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Level 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Mention"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Smart Hyperlink"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0in;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Calibri;
mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-fareast-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<!--EndFragment--></div>
</div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-66001666728381548222016-07-06T11:44:00.001+10:002016-07-18T10:23:48.694+10:00Just my imagination<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 16px; line-height: normal;">E</span>very first year psychology student learns the difference between sensation and perception, although whether or not this distinction has any long-term impact is open to debate. Psychology students are probably like the rest of us. We tend to imagine that our perceptions are somehow a true picture of the outside world, and that our cognitions - memories, thoughts, and imaginings - belong to another part of the brain which doesn't really interfere much with what we perceive.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
And yet it is our cognitions (“top-down processes” as the psychologists say) that give the meaning to what we perceive. If we taste something, for example, the tasting experience will be examined in the light of a mental model of that taste that we already have – essentially a prediction or expectation of the taste based on our memory of similar experiences or other sources of information (perhaps from advertising or packaging, and so on). This tells us two things. The first of these is that we can’t really understand what we experience and enjoy (or not) without knowing something about these <i>top-down processes</i>. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
More specifically, it tells us that we carry around mental models of our experiences, and this raises the question of just how “real” these internal representations of the stuff that’s out there really are. This, it must be said, is not a novel question, having been regularly asked by John Locke and others, as they shared pints at their local pub (<i>The Empiricist & Bishop</i>) in 18<sup>th</sup> century Britain. But more recently, and particularly in relation to tastes and smells, we have had some actual evidence about “imagined” sensory experiences.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
In the early to mid 1990s, there were a number of studies published in what was known as <i>memory psychophysics</i>. The idea was to ask what would happen if you held mental image of sensations (memories), combined them mentally with actual physically-present sensations, and then rated the intensity of the combination. While, on the surface, this sounds like the ultimate waste of time, in fact it was one way of asking whether or not people explicitly or implicitly knew how different sensations interact. Dick Stevenson and I explored this idea in both mixtures of sweet and sour tastes and the hot sensations of capsaicin (from chilli) with these tastes [1]. Mixing an imagined taste (e.g., sourness) with a physically present sweet taste showed the same pattern of suppression (less sourness, less sweetness) as found when the two tastes are actually mixed together and tasted. But then, we consciously know this anyway - how do you make lemon juice less sour? More interesting was the fact that when participants imagined adding a burning sensation to sweet or sour tastes, only sweetness was rated as less intense. This is exactly what happens in actual mixtures – capsaicin only reliably reduces sweetness. But most importantly, the participants, when debriefed about their knowledge of such interactions, felt that any taste would be suppressed by the burn. In other words, they carried implicit information about the interactions, of which they were not consciously unaware.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
A few years later, in an interesting exploration of the interactions of tastes and congruent odours – e.g., sweetness and vanilla – a group at McGill University in Canada [2] found that imagined odours could enhance the detectability of a sweet taste, in the same way that a physically present odour could. And in exactly the same way as a physically present odour, the imagined odour had to be congruent. So, imagined strawberry odour was effective in increasing sweet taste detectability (because strawberry odour carries with it the quality of sweetness, learned from previous experiences). An imagined ham odour, which is incongruent with sweetness, was not.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
So, it appears that we can conjure effectively real sensory stimuli from imagination. Most fascinating of all though is how these cognitively-based stimuli can influence behaviour, including potentially our food preferences and choices. Again, to some extent, we know how influential thoughts can be. Imagine sucking a lemon and saliva will start to flow; similarly, think about food close to dinner time to get the gastric juices flowing. This latter effect is consistent with data showing that thinking about food is associated with craving and, especially if you are restricting intake by dieting, succumbing to the temptation to eat. It seems that exposure to food as a mental image acts just like an initial bite, which tends to elicit an <i>appetiser</i> effect (<i>“you can’t eat just one!”</i>) [3].</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
A demonstration of the potential impact of mental imagery on actual food consumption was published in the prestigious journal <i>Science</i> in 2010 [4]. Noting that both sensory input and mental images can elicit similar responses across a range of different behaviours, these researchers examined whether repeatedly thinking about a food actually <i>decreased</i> desire to consume the food. In other words, can thinking act just like an actual bite or sip, in producing a type of sensory-specific satiety (SSS) effect? We know that the first bite or first sip is always the best, with pleasure decreasing after that [5]. In fact, losing pleasure in eating or drinking is just as much a reason that people stop eating as being full. A series of experiments using those much-loved research foods M&Ms and cheese cubes showed exactly this effect. For either food, multiple repeats (x 30) of thinking about eating led to less actual later <i>ad-lib</i> consumption than did fewer (x 3) thinking episodes. Important to the interpretation of these results was the fact they controlled for simple exposure to the image of the food – thus, imagining placing M&Ms into a bowl, as opposed to imaging eating them, had no impact on subsequent consumption.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
How did these researchers reconcile the two potential effects of imagining food – the <i>appetiser</i> effect (increased desire to eat) and the SSS (reduced pleasure in eating) effect? A final study in their paper measured two separate reasons for eating, namely liking and wanting (see: <i><a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2012/10/learning-to-want.html" target="_blank">Learning to want</a></i>). Repeatedly imagining a food was found not to produce a decrease in liking for the food. So, in fact, the effect is unlike SSS which is based on reduced liking with repeat exposure. In addition, the researchers asked participants to perform a reinforcement computer game in which points in the game could be exchanged for consumption of cheese cubes. Exactly as would be predicted if the imagining effects were due to reduced motivation to consume (reduced wanting), those previously asked to imagine eating for the high multiple occasions (30 vs. 3) were less motivated to respond to obtain the cheesy reward.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
The practical implications of research such as this for reducing overeating are pretty obvious. But, more generally, the studies tell us that the more we know about cognitive “top-down” processes that feed into our perceptions, emotions and motivations, the more we will understand food choices. What’s in the brain is just as important as what’s in the mouth.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; line-height: normal;">
________________________________________________________________________</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; line-height: normal; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Stevenson, R.J. and J. Prescott, <i>Judgments of chemosensory mixtures in memory.</i> Acta Psychologica, 1997. <b>95</b>(2): p. 195-214.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 8px; line-height: normal; margin-left: 36px; min-height: 10px; text-indent: -36px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; line-height: normal; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Djordjevic, J., R.J. Zatorre, and M. Jones-Gotman, <i>Effects of Perceived and Imagined Odors on Taste Detection.</i> Chem. Senses, 2004. <b>29</b>: p. 199-208.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 8px; line-height: normal; margin-left: 36px; min-height: 10px; text-indent: -36px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; line-height: normal; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Yeomans, M.R., <i>Palatability and the micro-structure of feeding in humans: the appetizer effect.</i> Appetite, 1996. <b>27</b>(2): p. 119-33.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 8px; line-height: normal; margin-left: 36px; min-height: 10px; text-indent: -36px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; line-height: normal; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
4.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Morewedge, C.K., Y.E. Huh, and J. Vosgerau, <i>Thought for Food: Imagined Consumption Reduces Actual Consumption.</i> Science, 2010. <b>330</b>: p. 1530-1533.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; line-height: normal; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; line-height: normal; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
5. Hetherington, M., B.J. Rolls, and V.J. Burley, <i>The time course of sensory-specific satiety.</i> Appetite, 1989. <b>12</b>: p. 57-68.</div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-55327655987853466182016-03-22T16:57:00.000+11:002016-03-22T22:06:12.347+11:00Cueing for food<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;">When
was the last time you were overcome with a desire to eat a particular food? Did
you say <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">lunchtime, dinnertime, when I was
last hungry</i> and so on? Thank you for playing - next contestant, please. We
may want to eat at these times, but it’s rare for such occasions to prompt a
desire for something specific. On the other hand, walking past a bakery or
pizzeria or curry restaurant can easily produce a desire to consume the source
of the aromas we pick up. You’ll perhaps notice that I didn’t include vegetable
market or health food shop among these examples, and there’s a good reason for
that.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;">Food
sensory cues - </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;">sights, sounds (sizzling, for
example), smells - </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;">are signaling not just the presence of food, but also the food’s
palatability. And they are everywhere.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;"> The
multimedia environment in which we are all immersed in affluent societies means
that cues signaling food palatability are present for pretty much the majority
of the time we are awake, through television, advertising, and our urban
‘smellscape’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;">This is not to say that ‘internal’ cues
such as hunger are irrelevant to motivating us to eat. Indeed, hunger makes us
much more vulnerable to ‘external’ food sensory cues which mainly come about
through learning. That is, our bodies associate the ingested fats and sugars of
foods with their flavours and aromas, which not only becomes highly liked as a
consequence but also become a powerful trigger for the desire to consume, or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">wanting</i>. This desire or drive is at
least as much about <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hedonic hunger</i> as
it is about an empty stomach (see: <i><a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2012/10/learning-to-want.html" target="_blank"><b>Learning to Want</b></a></i> for further detail). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;">It is important not to underestimate
the role that cue-elicited wanting plays in overeating. Obesity is much less
common in societies where regular mealtimes are observed and snacking is low.
It is ‘non-essential’ eating, driven by a desire for food pleasure (read: fat,
sugar, salt) that provides the greatest challenge to a health weight. We are
all influenced to greater or lesser degrees by external food cues, and we will
all tend to eat more of a palatable food than one that is not palatable. But
the fact that cues can have such a powerful impact on eating has raised the
question of whether those who have difficulty controlling their food intake are
somehow more aware or more reactive or perhaps more vulnerable to external
cues. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;">Even if you find chocolate or desserts
highly appealing, you may or may not give in to the temptation to indulge when
either is available. The idea of <i>eating restraint</i> - habitual monitoring and
control of food intake – seems to be important here. Food cues (the sight or
smells of a pizza, or even thoughts about food) exert their greatest influence
on desire to eat if you are a restrained eater – this isn’t very surprising if
you consider that restraint means denying yourself food pleasures. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;">It is easy enough to think of
restrained eaters as wildeyed and salivating, forever battling with urges to
eat. But of course restrained eaters as a group must include both those who are
successful at resisting these urges – successful dieters – as well as those who
succumb. Moreover, even if you are not a restrained eater, you may still be
someone who tends to give in to the temptations posed by the sight or smell of your
favourite foods. Thus, another characteristic – <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">disinhibition</i> – has been implicated in determining responses to
food cues. Many of us have tried to lose weight at some stage. This will often involve
a considerable effort to inhibit your desire to consume the palatable foods
that you will encounter. If you are effective at doing this, then you can be
said to be low in disinhibition (the failure of inhibition); conversely, if
resistance is futile, then you can be seen as high in disinhibition. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;">Irrespective of its origin, when
measured on the <i>Three Factor Eating Questionnaire</i> (the other factors are
restraint and hunger) (1), up to 50 per cent of women in the USA show high
disinhibition, and this percentage is highest in young women. Estimated rates
in men tend to be much lower, perhaps around 25 per cent, depending on age and
other demographic factors.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;">Disinhibition is not just about
reacting to all foods at all times. Those who show high levels of disinhibition
are especially responsive to cues that signal the calorie content of foods and
thus prone to ‘wanting’ highly palatable foods: sweet foods and beverages and
food high in fat, such as butter, cream and ice cream. And because of the
nature of the trait, they tend to act on these desires when palatable food is
available and consume more. Those high in disinhibition are therefore not simply
gluttons who want to continue to eat, but individuals whose responses to
sensory cues are exaggerated. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;">Needless to say, degree of
disinhibition is thought to be crucial in determining successful dieting. It is
highest among those dieters who have most trouble maintaining their ideal
weight and in dieters who are most bothered by food images that lead to
craving. It is, for example, associated with increased chocolate intake by
those who identify themselves as ‘chocolate addicts’. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;">To be able to understand the impact of
food cues on eating, disinhibition and restraint need to be considered
together. If you are low in disinhibition, it is more likely that you will be a
successful restrained eater. If you are not trying to restrain your eating,
then your </span><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13pt;">level of disinhibition might seem to be
of less concern. But if you do not restrain your eating and you are high in
disinhibition, then you will still be highly responsive to palatable food cues. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;">How these interactions might influence
reactions to palatable foods is illustrated by a study (1) in which a group of
women were offered their most tempting snack food – including chocolate, crisps,
candy, nuts and cookies. The women were firstly asked to taste a small amount
of the snack, and then were given the remainder to take home and asked to come
back a day later. Half of the women were instructed not to consume any of the
snack until they returned the next day (the temptation condition), while the
other half of the group were given no instructions (the control group). On
returning to the laboratory the next day, all women were offered their snack to
eat and the amount they consumed was measured. Regardless of the group they
were in, those who measured low in restraint or those high in restraint but low
in disinhibition ate approximately the same amount as they had on the previous
day. By contrast, those high in both disinhibition and restraint ate
significantly more if they were in the temptation group.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;">The combination of restraint and a
strong tendency to disinhibition therefore made these women particularly
vulnerable to the temptation of a palatable food that had been restricted. This
is, of course, exactly the set of circumstances that those who experience
cravings report during periods of dieting. It is not completely clear as yet
whether eating restraint is a risk for weight gain if you are disinhibited or
disinhibition is a risk if you diet a lot. Increasingly, though, studies are
teasing apart the relative contribution of these factors. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;">Most recently, Martin Yeomans at the
University of Sussex (2) has been characterizing those high in food
disinhibition, finding that their responses to food may be in fact a reflection
of a more general, underlying personality dimension. He pre-exposed
participants varying in both restraint and disinhibition to pictures of ‘unhealthy’
foods and measured their responses on a number of tests of general impulsivity
(included a test of willingness to delay reward: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">$2 now or $10 next month</i>?) and risk-taking. Although none of the
tests were specifically related to food or eating, after exposure to food cues,
high disinhibition women were more impulsive and higher in risk-taking. In
contrast, those high in restrained eating showed no such effects, irrespective
of exposure to prior visual cues.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt;">Thus, the trend that is emerging is that
disinhibition is the important personality factor that predisposes to weight
gain, and this is due to how disinhibition alters your response to food cues. Consistent
with this, disinhibited eaters consume far more of an available snack following
a high carbohydrate meal than do those low in disinhibition. Moreover, this
overeating was not driven by hunger but rather by the hedonic properties of the
snack. While it might seem that asking such individuals to restrain themselves
is a sensible approach, it is clearly asking for trouble, with the risk of
failure being high.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p> ____________________________________________</o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -21.3pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri";">1. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Stunkard AJ, Messick S (1985) The
three-factor eating questionnaire to measure dietary restraint, disinhibition and
hunger. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 29: 71–83.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -21.3pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -21.3pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica;">Soetens,
B., Braet, C., Van Vlierberghe, L., & Roets, A. (2008). Resisting
temptation: Effects of exposure to a forbidden food on eating behaviour. <i>Appetite,
51</i>, 202-205.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; text-indent: -21.3pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -21.3pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica;">3. Yeomans, M. R.,
& Brace, A. (2015). Cued to Act on Impulse: More Impulsive Choice and Risky
Decision Making by Women Susceptible to Overeating after Exposure to Food
Stimuli. <i>Plos One, 10</i>, e0137626.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -21.3pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -21.3pt;">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>JA</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
<w:UseFELayout/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="276">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<!--EndFragment--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -21.3pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica;">4. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Chambers,
L. & Yeomans, M.R. (2011) Individual Differences in Satiety Response to Carbohydrate
and Fat. Predictions from the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (tfeq)’,
Appetite, 41, 316–23.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -21.3pt;">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>JA</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
<w:UseFELayout/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="276">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<!--EndFragment--><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>JA</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
<w:UseFELayout/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="276">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<!--EndFragment--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-23476728466566602382016-01-13T17:30:00.001+11:002016-08-29T11:39:53.964+10:00Yule tired<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">So, Christmas was fun, right? It’s
always filled with light hearts and good humour! And the food – turkey is such
a surprise and so creative and delicious! If, at this stage, you are nodding,
then you may very well be in a minority. We know that family tensions increase
at Christmas, and so do suicides. For whatever reasons, many of those who
celebrate Christmas day without the company of their parents or extended family
view themselves as having a lucky escape. It’s not about being in the depths of
winter either. Those in the USA sensibly organize their Christmas meals in
early November to coincide with the date when local indigenous tribes took pity
on the local settlers from England, recognizing that they were Puritans and
hence unlikely ever to organize their own celebrations. If you are raised in an
Anglo-Saxon culture in the southern hemisphere, it is even worse of course. A
huge winter meal during a 35<sup>o</sup>C day is not culinary experience one
dreams about. And yet it is commonplace, and produces similar emotional
consequence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Of course, children love Christmas
– there’s lots of colour and movement, there are presents to break, and lots of
cakes, puddings and pies to ramp up blood sugars to maximum. Sometime around
puberty, though, the presents start to become less exciting (more <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Lego</i> …. great!) and there comes a
belated realization that the food is most likely exactly what it was last year
and at every previous Christmas. In Victorian times and in northern hemisphere
winters there was probably nothing nicer than tucking into a goose (where’s the
meat?) or turkey (is it really meant to be this dry?). But does anybody really
now look forward to such foods that we could eat at any time of the year, but
interestingly choose not to? And let’s not forget the groans that commence after
the meal. Who’s more stuffed – you or the turkey?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">This brings me to the point that
popped into my own head during a recent mince pie and Madeira binge. We have a
pretty good idea of how food preferences are formed (if you don’t, may I
recommend </span><!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;
line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Prescott</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>5634</RecNum><DisplayText>[1]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>5634</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="1326859933">5634</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author><style
face="normal" font="default" size="12">Prescott,
J.</style></author></authors></contributors><titles><title><style
face="normal" font="default" size="12">Taste
Matters. Why we like the foods we
do.</style></title></titles><dates><year><style
face="normal" font="default"
size="12">2012</style></year></dates><pub-location><style
face="normal" font="default"
size="12">London</style></pub-location><publisher><style
face="normal" font="default"
size="12">Reaktion
Books</style></publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[1]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">), namely through
different forms of associative learning following a small number of innate
preferences and dislikes present at birth. It is pretty easy to see how
children would learn to love the Christmas feast. But let’s look at the context
for the meal, since we know that this is an important factor in preference
development </span><!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:
13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Meiselman</Author><Year>2000</Year><RecNum>2370</RecNum><DisplayText>[2]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2370</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="0">2370</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal
Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Meiselman,
H.L.</author><author>Johnson,
J.L.</author><author>Reeve, W.</author><author>Crouch,
J.E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Demonstrations
of the influence of the eating environment on food
acceptance</title><secondary-title>Appetite</secondary-title><alt-title>Appetite</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Appetite</full-title><abbr-1>Appetite</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Appetite</full-title><abbr-1>Appetite</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>231-237</pages><volume>35</volume><keywords><keyword>food
choice</keyword><keyword>context</keyword><keyword>environment</keyword><keyword>preferences</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2000</year></dates><label>1950</label><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[2]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Given the unreasonable expectations of the
day, the family feuds, the obnoxious drunk uncle, the disappointing presents,
why do we clearly want to eat the same foods again and again? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Perhaps it’s comfort food? (see: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2011/11/tastes-like-home.html">Tastes
Like Home</a></i>) Certainly, that might be part of it, but why isn’t this
undermined by the often uncomfortable context and the questionable gastronomic
qualities of the food itself? If emotions are so important in determining food
preferences </span><!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:
13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Spinelli</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>6950</RecNum><DisplayText>[3]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>6950</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="1423088197">6950</key><key
app="ENWeb"
db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal
Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Spinelli,
S.</author><author>Masi, C.</author><author>Zoboli, G.
P.</author><author>Prescott,
J.</author><author>Monteleone,
E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Emotional
responses to branded and unbranded
foods</title><secondary-title>Food Quality and Preference</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Food
Quality and Preference</full-title><abbr-1>Food Qual
Prefer</abbr-1></periodical><pages>1-11</pages><volume>42</volume><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>09503293</isbn><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1016/j.foodqual.2014.12.009</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[3]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">, why don’t
Christmas family feuds produce food dislikes?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -19.1pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In
fact, we know far less about acquiring food dislikes than we do about how our
preferences are formed in the first place. And one good reason for this is that
… perhaps surprisingly … acquired food dislikes are not very common. Of course,
pairing flavours with illness produces long-lasting ‘taste’ aversions, but this
accounts for only a small fraction of the foods people say they don’t like. The
effects of dietary monotony or boredom with particular foods are well known </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Meiselman</Author><Year>2000</Year><RecNum>3055</RecNum><DisplayText>[4]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>3055</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="0">3055</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Meiselman,
H.L.</author><author>deGraaf, C.</author><author>Lesher,
L.L.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The
effects of variety and monotony on food acceptance and intake at<span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>a midday meal</title><secondary-title>Physiol.
Behav.</secondary-title><alt-title>Physiology &amp; Behavior</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Physiology
&amp; Behavior</full-title><abbr-1>Physiol
Behav</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>119-125</pages><volume>70</volume><keywords><keyword>boredom</keyword><keyword>monotony</keyword><keyword>acceptability</keyword><keyword>hedonics</keyword><keyword>intake</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2000</year></dates><label>2780</label><urls><pdf-urls><url>file://localhost/Users/admin/WORD%20DOCUMENTS/PUBLICATIONS/TASTE%20MATTERS/RESOURCES/SATIETY:boredom/Meiselman_ref2780.pdf</url></pdf-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[4]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">, but this seems
to be about regularity of consumption and not the development of an actual
dislike. Something similar occurs <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">during</i>
a meal (sensory-specific satiety) when the first sip or bite of a food tastes
best. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -19.1pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -19.1pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">When
we consider most food dislikes we are really talking about those foods that
either haven’t been tried more than once or that are disliked for purely moral
or cognitive reasons such as meat for a vegetarian (or tofu for everyone else).
It becomes quite difficult to acquire a food dislike once it has been regularly
eaten and a preference has formed because the body has learned through these
eating occasions both that the food will not poison us and also that it carries
calories or some other valued nutrient. Even ‘empty calories’ are still
calories. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -19.1pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -19.1pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The
learning processes through which food preferences are formed are known as
evaluative conditioning (EC). EC is much like classical (aka, Pavlovian)
conditioning (CC) in that it involves pairing of something neutral with
something to which we already have a like or dislike. The effect is to make the
neutral thing into something that evokes a response. So, the sound of a bell
paired with an electric shock repeatedly leads to the bell eliciting a response
as though a shock were about to be delivered, initially even when the shock is
removed. Similarly, a novel flavour paired with sugar produces a liked flavour.
Pairing flavour with bitter tastes might be expected to produce dislikes, but
if we do this often enough then the food’s energy will offset this effect and
increase liking for the flavour (known as post-ingestive or flavour-calorie learning).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">One of the few ways in which EC
and CC differ may account for the relative lack of learned dislikes. When the
pairing is stopped, a process known as extinction (in CC) occurs. Having
established that the bell is a useful signal for an upcoming shock, repeatedly
presenting the bell without the shock will eventually lead to a recognition
that it has stopped being a good signal and there’s no point in responding as
though a shock were about to happen. In contrast, once a flavour has been
paired with a liked sweet taste it remains liked, even if it is never (as far
as we know) again paired with sugar </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Baeyens</Author><Year>1988</Year><RecNum>661</RecNum><DisplayText>[5]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>661</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="0">661</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Baeyens,
F.</author><author>Crombez, G.</author><author>Bergh,
O. van der.</author><author>Eelen,
P.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Once
in contact always in contact:<span style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>Evaluative
conditioning is resistant to
extinction</title><secondary-title>Advances in Behavioural Research
and
Therapy</secondary-title></titles><pages>179-199</pages><volume>10</volume><keywords><keyword>evaluative
conditioning</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1988</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[5]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">. Your first
thought will be that it’s all down to the relative importance of these
processes to survival. Unfortunately, this doesn’t work. EC occurs not just
with food flavours but even in cases where there is no survival advantage
(e.g., pairing a liked picture with one that is neutral); conversely, predicting
that red lights signal oncoming traffic clearly helps avoid an untimely demise.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">There is some very limited
evidence that post-ingestive learning – that is, a flavour paired with calories
– can extinguish.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In one study with
humans, considerably reducing the energy content of a familiar, preferred meal
led to a pronounced decline in liking over repeated eating occasions, as
compared to the same meal without the energy reduction </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>O’Sullivan</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>5726</RecNum><DisplayText>[6]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>5726</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="1345683353">5726</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>O’Sullivan,
H.L.</author><author>Alexander,
E.</author><author>Ferriday,
D.</author><author>Brunstrom,
J.M.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Effects
of repeated exposure on liking for a reduced-energy-dense
food</title><secondary-title>Am J Clin
Nutr</secondary-title><alt-title>American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition</full-title><abbr-1>Am J Clin
Nutr</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition</full-title><abbr-1>Am J Clin
Nutr</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>1584-1589</pages><volume>91</volume><keywords><keyword>exposure</keyword><keyword>energy</keyword><keyword>flavour
nutrient
learning</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2010</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[6]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">. This seem s to
suggest that, as with CC, the participants in the study were learning something
new about these food flavours and their ability to signal upcoming energy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>JA</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
<w:UseFELayout/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="276">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<!--EndFragment--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">But in the absence of low-cal
turkey and pudding, it appears we are stuck with our Christmas preferences and food
habits. Which suggests very strongly the power of early learning against
anything that the adult yuletide experience can throw at it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> _______________________________________________________</o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p><br /></o:p></span></div>
<div style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border: none; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0cm 0cm 1.0pt 0cm;">
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 2.15pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-family:Calibri'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.REFLIST <span style='mso-element:
field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri";"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">1.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Prescott,
J., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Taste Matters. Why we like the foods
we do.</i> 2012, London: Reaktion Books.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 2.15pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; mso-no-proof: yes;">2.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Meiselman, H.L., et al., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Demonstrations of the influence of the
eating environment on food acceptance.</i> Appetite, 2000. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">35</b>: p. 231-237.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 2.15pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; mso-no-proof: yes;">3.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Spinelli, S., et al., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Emotional responses to branded and unbranded
foods.</i> Food Quality and Preference, 2015. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">42</b>: p. 1-11.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 2.15pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; mso-no-proof: yes;">4.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Meiselman, H.L., C. deGraaf, and L.L.
Lesher, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The effects of variety and
monotony on food acceptance and intake at<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>a midday meal.</i> Physiol. Behav., 2000. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">70</b>: p. 119-125.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 2.15pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; mso-no-proof: yes;">5.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Baeyens, F., et al., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Once in contact always in contact:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Evaluative conditioning is resistant to
extinction.</i> Advances in Behavioural Research and Therapy, 1988. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">10</b>: p. 179-199.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -26.2pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>JA</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
<w:UseFELayout/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="276">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:
Calibri;mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝";mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast;
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><!--EndFragment--></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 2.15pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri"; mso-no-proof: yes;">6.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>O’Sullivan, H.L., et al., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Effects of repeated exposure on liking for a
reduced-energy-dense food.</i> Am J Clin Nutr, 2010. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">91</b>: p. 1584-1589.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-61789009535306665472015-10-27T15:32:00.003+11:002015-10-27T15:53:37.308+11:00Food for thought<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: Calibri; line-height: normal;">
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
According to a recent article in <i>The Atlantic Monthly</i> “<a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/10/tasting-a-flavor-that-doesnt-exist/411454/" target="_blank"><span style="color: red;">Tasting a Flavor That Doesn't Exist</span></a>”, food companies are now implementing the findings of recent research on “phantom aromas” that somehow trick the brain into “manufacturing a taste”. While we can’t really expect non-technical magazines to necessarily convey the complexity of most research, this type of article nevertheless annoyingly perpetuates the idea that somehow the brain is an organ that “we” can easily confuse by feeding into it contradictory or incomplete information. This idea has a long history in the realm of visual illusions. Lines can seem longer than they are, rooms smaller, and the moon larger if we provide the brain with visual information in the right way or under certain constraints. What a silly old brain! </div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
But of course, our brains (that is, us) do not process sensory information out of context. Since the context may tell us something quite important about what we are sensing, why would they? The context may be environmental (<i>Why is the moon so big? Well, things near the horizon tend to be further away</i>) or it may come from the different sources of sensory information that arrive at the same time. This latter type of context provides the basis for the recent fascination with the multisensory nature of food, especially the findings that one sense can influence another, e.g. [1]. </div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
But this shouldn’t be surprising – the brain takes in and integrates whatever sources of information are needed to help us survive. In the food realm, this means identifying those things that are edible. Animal studies have even identified single nerve cells in the brain that receive information from touch, hearing and vision [2], because together such information might reliably tell us where something edible might be found.</div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
But why do brains sometimes get it wrong? The answer is straightforward: if the information is incomplete or perhaps different senses contradict one another, the brain takes its best guess. A lot of the time, this guess relies on searching for, and identification of, patterns that are statistically more commonly experienced. Sometimes the best guess allows one sense to dominate others - visual dominance responsible for the illusion of the speaking ventriloquist’s dummy – because it is usually a more reliable source of information. At other times, such as when it’s easier to understand what someone is saying in a noisy environment if you can see their lips move, information from one sense enhances that from another. </div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
This is exactly the same phenomenon that we see in foods when we find that an aroma can enhance the intensity of a taste. Beginning in the late 1980s, Frank and colleagues [3] explored the phenomenon of sweet-smelling odours. From these studies, two things stood out. The first of these was that such odours seemed to be mostly those that were repeatedly experience together with sweet tastes in foods. Secondly, a sweet smell would only enhance a sweet taste and not, for example, a salty taste. They noted that the odour and taste needed to share a common property – the sweetness – whether tasted or smelled.</div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
A smell with a taste? A phantom aroma indeed! Except …. we now need to consider the one other source of information that the brain uses. This comes from <i>…. <span style="color: red;"><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zi6wNGwd84g" target="_blank"><span style="color: red;">wait for it</span></a> </span>...</i>. Inside our heads! The fact that sweet aromas are those experienced previously with sweet tastes (and salty aromas with salty tastes, and so on) is the key. In integrating information about food, the brain only really cares about the fact that together the tastes, aromas and tactile qualities uniquely identify something useful to us. Ah, this flavour is sweet, say you (and your brain), and hence the food is good to eat. Because we respond to the overall flavour, and not which sense provides what information, the odour is not distinguished from the sweetness of the food and this is encoded in memory – subsequently sniffing the odour can then activate this memory and … hey presto! … a phantom aroma (except what <i>The Atlantic Monthly</i> presumably meant was a phantom <i>taste</i>).<span style="color: #ff2700;">*</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
What this all means is that flavours are assembled from information that comes from the mouth and nose, together with other information resulting from our experiences with foods and extracted, consciously or not, from memory. In other words, flavours are at least partly cognitive. Some knowledge of this cognitive landscape, traditionally largely ignored by food scientists and flavour chemists, is crucial to understand perception, whether of foods or of anything else. Cognitive psychology – or as it is known now by those who want to ask the same questions using large, expensive machines, cognitive neuroscience – has provided models and techniques for studying memory, attention, decision making and, increasingly, emotions.</div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
The crucial role that cognitive processes play helping us understand food perceptions and preferences extends beyond explanations of flavour, and odour/taste interactions. Consider the activity of wine tasting. In describing the wine, the taster selectively attends to some qualities (berry-like, tobacco notes) by somehow mentally extracting them from the complex mixture that is wine flavour. These notes can be weak or intense, but the only way of knowing this is by comparing in memory what is perceived to what is typical. Then there is the decision that might have to be made: is this a good wine or a wine typical of the region.</div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
In fact, we don’t have to rely on expert wine tasters to illustrate our reliance on cognitive processes in tasting. Everyday evaluations of food carried out within the food industry or in food research environments illustrate the point equally well. Sensory scientists routinely administer tests to trained panelists or consumers to evaluate foods perceptions or preferences – what sensory qualities does a food possess, how strong are these qualities, are two products different, or perhaps which product is liked more. Alternatively, we can see the administration of sensory tests to panelists or preference tests to consumers as requests to <i>pay attention</i> to product attributes, <i>make decisions</i> about differences or preferences, to <i>analyse</i> complex flavours into their elements, <i>remember</i> previous product experiences for comparison, or to <i>describe emotions</i> arising from product experiences. </div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
Even the <i>way</i> in which sensory tests are carried out is a function of what we know about cognitive biases. If you want people to attend to the <i>overall</i> flavour, don't ask them about different aspects of the flavour. In a group of products varying in intensity on an attribute, the first sample will be held in memory to act as the point of comparison for the other samples. Asking about the intensity of a single product will activate long-term memory for the intensity of what they usually consume. The answer to whether two products are the same or different will depend on the cognitive criterion for difference that the person adopts. And so on.</div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 17px; line-height: normal;">
Cogito ergo … er, gustavero? <span style="color: #ff2700;">**</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 13px; line-height: normal; min-height: 15px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; min-height: 15px;">
<span style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">___________________________________________________________________</span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; min-height: 15px;">
<span style="color: #ff2700; font-size: 18px; line-height: normal;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; min-height: 15px;">
<div style="font-size: 14px; line-height: normal;">
<span style="color: #ff2700; font-size: 16px; line-height: normal;">*</span><span style="font-size: 16px; line-height: normal;"> </span><span style="font-family: Cambria; line-height: normal;"> </span>Those wishing a more detailed account of this process should see one of the following reviews: <span style="font-size: 15px; line-height: normal;">[4-6]</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 14px; line-height: normal;">
<span style="color: #ff2700; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; line-height: normal;">**</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; line-height: normal;"> </span>Even if you don’t know Latin, you should know Descartes – look it up!</div>
</div>
<div style="line-height: normal; min-height: 18px; text-indent: 0px;">
<span style="font-size: 15px; text-indent: -36px;">___________________________________________________________</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 15px; text-indent: -36px;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: normal; min-height: 18px; text-indent: 0px;">
<div style="font-size: 14px; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 6px; text-indent: -36px;">
1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Piqueras-Fiszman, B. and C. Spence, <i>Sensory expectations based on product-extrinsic food cues: An interdisciplinary review of the empirical evidence and theoretical accounts.</i> Food Qual Prefer, 2015. <b>40</b>: 165-179.</div>
<div style="font-size: 14px; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 6px; text-indent: -36px;">
2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Meredith, A. and B.E. Stein, <i>Interactions among converging sensory inputs in the superior colliculus.</i> Science, 1983. <b>221</b>: 389-391.</div>
<div style="font-size: 14px; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 6px; text-indent: -36px;">
3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Frank, R.A. and J. Byram, <i>Taste-smell interactions are tastant and odorant dependent.</i> Chemical Senses, 1988. <b>13</b>(3): 445-455.</div>
<div style="font-size: 14px; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 6px; text-indent: -36px;">
4.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Prescott, J., <i>Chemosensory learning and flavour: Perception, preference and intake.</i> Physiol Behav, 2012. <b>107</b>: 553-559.</div>
<div style="font-size: 14px; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 6px; text-indent: -36px;">
5.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Prescott, J. and R.J. Stevenson, <i>Chemosensory Integration and the Perception of Flavor</i>, in <i>Handbook of Olfaction & Gustation: Modern Perspectives</i>, R.L. Doty, Editor. 2015, John Wiley & Sons. 1008-1028.</div>
<div style="font-size: 14px; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 6px; text-indent: -36px;">
6. Stevenson, R.J. and R.A. Boakes, <i>Sweet and sour smells: the acquisition of taste-like qualities by odors</i>, in <i>Handbook of Multisensory Processes</i>, G. Calvert, C.B. Spence, and B. Stein, Editors. 2004, MIT Press: Cambridge. 69-83.</div>
</div>
<div style="font-size: 16px;">
<br /></div>
</div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-28265195890839286202015-09-23T14:38:00.000+10:002016-03-22T10:36:20.274+11:00Complex odours and simple smells<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-size: 16px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">I h</span><span style="font-size: 17px;">ave</span> just finished reading the introduction to a thesis. It was well-written and well-argued, a pleasure to read. Yet, what struck me was the fact that almost all of the literature referenced was published within the past 20 years. Now, for a student, 20 years ago may seem like ancient history, and of course there’s little point in going back too far if your field is molecular genetics. But the literature relevant to food or taste or odour preferences and perceptions is not like that: there’s a lot of psychology from mid-20th century (and sometimes earlier) onwards that is highly relevant.</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In 1968, Zajonc published the initial paper on the phenomenon of mere exposure (ME) [1], the idea that liking for something increases as we are repeatedly exposed to it. Notice that I didn’t say “as we become more familiar with it”, and this is because Zajonc found that, strangely, familiarity did not increase for his rapidly-presented visual stimuli even though liking did. This is just one of the many interesting aspects of this phenomenon. Indeed, his research participants weren’t even aware of the nature of the stimulus to which they were exposed since the exposure time was typically about 0.004 seconds.</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Fast-forward forty years, and my colleagues and I studied ME for odours, which turned out to be different form the ME seen with simple visual stimuli [2]. We were interested in effects of attention on development of odour liking following studies that showed if you ignored a novel visual stimulus, it became less liked. We were familiar too with research showing that emotions direct attention – you’ll pay increased attention to something that is either appealing or threatening, for example. In fact, we managed to replicate the findings of the studies using visual stimuli, showing that you can be repeatedly exposed to an odour without getting to like it if your attention is directed elsewhere. It is as if, by allocating attention away from a stimulus, you are also sending a message to the emotion processing bits of your brain about its lack of emotional relevance.</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Now, a recent paper by Delplanque and colleagues has shown that the ME effect with odours seems to depend on just how pleasant the odour is judged prior to exposure [3]. Importantly, the effect is not linear – that is, if an odour is either very pleasant or very unpleasant to begin with, you get little impact of being repeatedly exposed to it. This is not difficult to explain with very pleasant odours as they may be reaching a sort of hedonic asymptote. Also, since these are odours with which we are likely to be familiar, they may be more easily identified – in essence, we’ve already made up our mind about how pleasant they are.</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Initially very unpleasant odours remain unpleasant despite exposure quite probably because their “hedonic tone” is a signal of potential danger – a signal that would be diluted if ME could change liking for them. As an example, odours of rotting, faecal odours, or highly pungent odours may provide us with good adaptive information because of their ability to repel us.</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">So, odours can be seen to be quite different to meaningless visual stimuli, of the type used in Zajonc’s studies, because unless they are highly novel, there is already some degree of pleasantness built in. Moreover, complete odour novelty is hard to find since the notes in complex odours may be reminiscent of other, better known smells. It is telling, for example, that the odour that showed the greatest change in the Delplanque study was the allegedly “no odour” control.</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Familiarity is well known to be associated with increasing pleasantness in odours, but only if we exclude those odour that are highly unpleasant, for which the association breaks down. If for a moment, we do exclude these, does that mean that we like odours <i>because</i> they are more familiar? Is this what ME is achieving for odours?</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">These questions bring me to the older paper that I really wanted to discuss, namely Berlyne’s studies of novelty, liking and stimulus complexity [4]. Like Zajonc, Berlyne used repeatedly presented visual stimuli and he initially found that lower familiarity was associated with high pleasantness. He realized, though, that he was failing to consider the complexity of that stimulus. To take account of this, he proposed that increased complexity – and/or increased novelty – produces high arousal, which is unpleasant. So, if we reduce the complexity and/or novelty of a stimulus, it becomes paired with lower arousal, and hence produces increased feelings of pleasure/reward.</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">So how does this apply to odours? Surely, we get bored with simple food or other odours, while complex odours are interesting? Well, maybe. But what constitutes complexity as far as odours are concerned? Let’s take the example of wines, mainly because we are used to talking about them in complex terms. It is evident that highly complex wines – those with many different facets or odour notes – are valued highly. You don’t get 95 on the “100 point” scale (see: <a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2012_11_01_archive.html"><span style="color: #0433ff;"><i>Overrated wines</i></span></a>) by having a simple flavour. But ….. such points aren’t awarded for liking; they are awarded for appreciation, which is not the same thing at all. You and I can like a complex Burgundy an awful lot, even if the only term that we can apply to it is “wine flavour”.</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In fact, and perhaps surprisingly, as we become more familiar with odours, we not only like them more, we also judge them as less complex [5]. But interestingly, familiarity is not associated with the number of notes that an odour might have – something that we might ordinarily think of (as in the case of wine, above) as a proxy for complexity.</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">So, attention, arousal, novelty, liking and complexity are all linked somehow, and if your brain is hurting, I can’t blame you – it’s all too complex! Try this. Zajonc proposed that exposed stimuli become like because of increased ease with which the brain can process them. Complexity may be synonymous with novelty simply because the brain takes longer or expends more effort in this processing. In terms of perception and behavior, something that is novel or surprising is, by definition, a violation of expectations that will involve increased (unpleasant) arousal and a direction of attention to stimulus features to assess if some action needs to be taken – perhaps there is danger, for example.</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-size: 16px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Consider this sequence next time you encounter something wrong or unexpected with, say, a drink. Arousal increases as you pay close attention to your drink: you sniff, repeatedly, attempting to identify the problem …. this process is, in a way, making features stand out and the drink odour seems more complex. You sniff again – hmmm, cat’s pee. That’s ok, then. You asked for a Riesling, but you were given a Sauvignon blanc. Arousal decreases, as familiarity and liking both increase, and you can pay attention to something else, like your meal.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px;">
_____________________________________________________________</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Zajonc, R.B., <i>Attitudinal effects of mere exposure.</i> J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 1968. <b>9</b>(2): 1-27.</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Prescott, J., H. Kim, and K.-O. Kim, <i>Cognitive mediation of hedonic changes to odors following exposure.</i> Chemosens. Percept., 2008. <b>1</b>: 2-8.</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Delplanque, S., G. Coppin, L. Bloesch, I. Cayeux, and D. Sander, <i>The mere exposure effect depends on an odor's initial pleasantness.</i> Frontiers in psychology, 2015. <b>6</b>: 911.</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">4.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Berlyne, D.E., <i>Novelty, complexity, and hedonic value.</i> Percept. Psychophys., 1970. <b>8</b>: 279-286.</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">5. Sulmont, C., S. Issanchou, and E.P. Koster, <i>Selection of odorants for memory tests on the basis of familiarity, perceived complexity, pleasantness, similarity and identification.</i> Chemical Senses, 2002. <b>27</b>: 307-317.</span></div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-85027456880546745482015-08-18T10:25:00.000+10:002015-08-18T11:27:14.516+10:00Death of the expert?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-top: 6px;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Are you a wine expert? No? A food expert, perhaps? No ….really? If, like me, you have a tendency to eat food more than once a day, you really should have been paying attention! But, attending or not, we all have a vast implicit store of knowledge about food, or at least the food that is typical of the culture within which we live. The average consumer can spot a change in one of their regular foods or drinks without very much effort. But what they can’t do is talk very much about that difference, since most of us lack even a basic food vocabulary. And trying to quantify the degree of difference say between two foods is even harder.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-top: 6px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-top: 6px;">
<span style="font-size: large;">For food producers this is a problem. Maintaining the quality of foods can be a challenge when ingredient supplies or storage conditions or packing materials vary. Especially for those foods that are easily influenced by geography or weather or the health of the plant or animal – dairy, wine, olive oil, tea and so on – the expert taster has been a source of information that helps eliminate those samples with faults.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-top: 6px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 0.1px; margin-top: 0.1px;">
<span style="font-size: large;">In addition, much of the sensory study of food flavours has been undertaken using experts – specifically trained panellists – whose training is aimed precisely at producing individuals who respond to sensory qualities in an analytical, non-hedonic, and highly sensitive manner [1]. In other words, they are meant to respond entirely unlike the typical consumer. Panellists who are well trained tend to produce data that are reliably reproducible. In contrast, consumers’ data tend to be highly variable, both within (for example, over time) and between individuals. These distinctions are sometimes described as contrasting objective with subjective data, with the implication that the former is intrinsically more desirable for understanding products.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 0.1px; margin-top: 0.1px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 0.1px; margin-top: 0.1px;">
<span style="font-size: large;">But the trained panel’s apparent advantages come at a cost of reduced ecological validity - that is, application to the real world of consumers. The point of sensory analysis is ultimately to understand the basis of consumers’ decisions about products, which are intimately linked to hedonics. Thus, sensitive trained panellists may describe product differences that are either unperceived by consumers or, even if perceived, then unimportant in terms of their influence on product acceptability. Conversely, minor product differences could potentially exert major effects on food preferences. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 0.1px; margin-top: 0.1px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 0.1px; margin-top: 0.1px;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Linking measures of product sensory attributes to consumer preferences implies that trained panellists and consumers actually perceive product attributes in the same way. But this is not necessarily true. We know that food flavours reflect the integration – or melding together – of taste, olfactory, and tactile information, and this integration means that these individual sensory attributes are melded together. But the whole approach of experts is to analyse, to break apart this synthesis, and with it the integration that produces the overall food flavour. As one example, this is evident when we asked consumers to be analytical and it reduces their liking for the flavour [2]. So, a major issue with consumers is not just that they are inconsistent and variable in their assessments of sensory properties, but that they also ‘see’ flavour as wholes rather than a collection of parts</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 0.1px; margin-top: 0.1px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 0.1px; margin-top: 0.1px;">
<span style="font-size: large;">As recently as the 1990s, it was accepted that the way to find out about consumer preferences was to ask them about liking – which they are clearly easily able to do – and to find out about the product by using trained experts, most often former consumers who’d had the hedonics knocked out of them. The small panels of tasters were experts because of their ability to focus on the minutiae of a product’s sensory qualities in a highly reproducible way. So, after 20, 40 or 80 hours of training, panelists can understand the difference between <i>cohesiveness</i> and <i>fracturability</i>, or between <i>kerosene</i> notes and <i>acetone</i> notes. When faced with such distinctions, the consumer merely looks bemused.</span></div>
<div style="color: #0433ff; font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 0.1px; margin-top: 0.1px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 0.1px; margin-top: 0.1px;">
<span style="font-size: large;">More recently, however, it has been seen as acceptable to ask consumers to distinguish among different products, either via sorting them into groups – which tends not to require a sensory vocabulary – or in the past few years identifying words that apply to whatever is being tasted methods do not require the development of an extensive vocabulary of relevant terms by the consumers themselves. These check-all-that-apply (CATA) techniques allow an insight into consumer perceptions of the similarities and differences between different samples or products.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 0.1px; margin-top: 0.1px;">
<span style="font-size: large;">The biggest change, though, appears to be emerging in the area of simply telling products apart, that is, discrimination. In an earlier discussion (see <a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2012_09_01_archive.html"><span style="color: #0433ff;"><i>The highly discriminating consumer</i></span></a>), I pointed out the increasing recognition being given to role of emotions in discrimination and how an emotional state might encourage sensitivity. In turn, this derives from the different ways in which experts and consumers ‘see’ products.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 0.1px; margin-top: 0.1px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 0.1px; margin-top: 0.1px;">
<span style="font-size: large;">The ability to discriminate between different tastes, flavours or foods is typically seen as a function of perceptual sensitivity derived from detailed analysis of their sensory properties. Hence, trained panels are recommended for such tasks. Conversely, consumers are thought to be relatively insensitive to the presence of, or variations in, sensory qualities, at least when compared to trained panelists, and there has been a reluctance to use consumers to undertake discrimination tests. This practice, however, relies on two assumptions that are increasingly being questioned. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 0.1px; margin-top: 0.1px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 0.1px; margin-top: 0.1px;">
<span style="font-size: large;">The first of these is that high levels of sensitivity to variations in sensory qualities is always important. In fact, trained panels may over-estimate the effect of variations on consumer preferences. Thus, measuring the concentration of trichloranisol (TCA; also known as cork taint) at which wine consumers would reject wine produced a much higher value that that given by wine tasters trained to be sensitive to TCA. In effect, wines rejected as tainted by the experts would have been perfectly acceptable to the majority of wine drinkers [3]. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 0.1px; margin-top: 0.1px; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 0.1px; margin-top: 0.1px;">
<span style="font-size: large;">So, consumers may be entirely appropriate to use in discrimination tasks when making judgments about what <i>other</i> consumers might perceive in products. The question is then how to find differences between products that are actually relevant to consumers? That is, would consumers actually notice the difference and, if they did, would they actually care? In a recently published study, Kim and colleagues [4] used an affective consumer discrimination method. The essence of this test was to perform a standard test of discrimination known as the duo-trio test in which consumers were asked to match one of two unknown stimuli to a reference. In this case, though, the reference was established beforehand as being preferred (affective groups) or no such pre-test was performed (analytical group). They were able to demonstrate that for those consumers who were genuinely “affective discriminators” – that is, they showed a clear preference for the product used as a reference (as compared to non-discriminators) – their ability to match the samples was higher than for an analytical group, who did not undergo this preference pre-test.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Hence, rather than encouraging these consumers to ignore their preferences, actively utilizing these preferences produced superior discrimination. Of course, the presence of sub-groups of ‘affective discriminators’ sounds like unwanted variability of the sort that does not occur with experts. But we should be used to the idea of preference segments. Variability in consumer perceptions and preferences is currently a rapidly increasing area of research (see for example <a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2013_02_01_archive.html"><span style="color: #0433ff;"><i>How sweet it is ... or is it</i></span></a><span style="color: #1d3dff;"><i>?</i></span>). The key is not to manage-out consumer variability by turning them into experts, but rather measure, identify and interpret the sources of the variability and ask what it tells us about food preference and choices in the population. Eliminating the impact of individual differences means that important variables that have a consistent impact on product perceptions and ultimately acceptability are ignored.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12px; min-height: 14px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12px;">
__________________________________________________________________________</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Prescott, J., J. Hayes, and N. Byrnes, <i>Sensory Science</i>, in <i>The Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Food Systems.</i>, N.K.V. Alfen, Editor. 2014, Elsevier. pp. 80 - 101.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Prescott, J., S.M. Lee, and K.O. Kim, <i>Analytic approaches to evaluation modify hedonic responses.</i> Food Qual. Pref., 2011. <b>22</b>(4): p. 391-393.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Prescott, J., et al., <i>An estimate of the “consumer rejection threshold” for TCA in white wine.</i> Food Qual. Pref., 2005. <b>16</b>: p. 345-349.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
4. Kim, M.-A., H.-M. Sim, and H.-S. Lee, <i>Affective discrimination methodology: Determination and use of a consumer-relevant sensory difference for food quality maintenance.</i> Food Research International, 2015. <b>70</b>: p. 47-54.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-14120348657784781822015-07-15T15:06:00.000+10:002015-07-15T15:21:25.346+10:00Remembering to like<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: Calibri;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Most of us have no trouble naming the foods we like most, or indeed saying <i>how much</i> we like them. We may not use a rating scale to do this, but can still convey that we like chocolate cake “a lot” or even – perhaps to confuse non-English speakers – “an <i>awful</i> lot”. But making a general statement about liking for foods (or anything else) carries with it a couple of important assumptions. The first of these relates to context (doesn’t everything?): chocolate cake is great in the evening as a dessert, but perhaps less enjoyable first thing in the morning. This is why we can say that we like chocolate cake more than we do cornflakes, but at the same time also say that we prefer the cornflakes if we are talking about breakfast.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Secondly, though, and much less obviously, I could ask you about your love of chocolate cake in relation to past or current consumption of it. Thus, being hungry and faced with the prospect of your first bite of the slice in front of you, your answer is pretty obvious. Ok, then what about after your first bite? After your second bite? Third? Tenth? There is a well-known phenomenon called sensory-specific satiety (SSS) that kicks in once we start to eat. This refers to the fact that simple exposure to the sensory properties of a food – its taste, smell, texture – causes the food to become less liked. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri;">
<span style="font-size: large;">The effect of SSS isn’t enormous – we see no more than about a 20% reduction in liking if we measure it using rating scales. But it seems to be enough to motivate us to want to eat other foods that are available instead. Hence, the theory behind SSS is that it is an adaptation that helps maintain a varied diet. It is apparently also important in telling us when to stop eating. In studies that allowed participants to consume as much food as they wanted, the reason ‘I just got tired of eating that food’ was found to be just as common a reason for stopping eating as ‘feeling full’.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri;">
<span style="font-size: large;">The distinction between these reasons is important: SSS is not about being full. Even chewing a food and not swallowing it will produce a decrease in liking for that food. Nor is it about nutrients – SSS occurs between foods that are similar in their flavours, but not between foods that are similar in nutrient content, but not flavour. So, we get bored with exposure to flavours and, indeed, pretty much any aspect of the food. Repeatedly eat red M&Ms and you’ll soon find the blue ones becoming strangely more appealing. Chew on something quite elastic for a while (say, a caramel) and you’ll start to long for a little bit of crispness. </span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Becoming bored with eating the same food repeatedly is not news, of course. With the exception of breakfast, where many people trade off boredom for convenience, having the same meal over and over again on successive days leads to both loss of pleasure and reduced consumption. It is not a surprise that many diets use boredom as a way pushing the dieter to eat less and hence loose weight. Whether over the short term, within a meal (SSS) or over days or weeks (boredom/monotony), we eat more when confronted with foods that are varied in the flavours or textures.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri;">
<span style="font-size: large;">But what if you didn’t recall what you’d recently eaten? In an earlier post (February, 2012: <a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.it/2012/02/remembrance-of-foods-past.html" target="_blank"><i>Remembrance of foods past</i></a></span><i><span style="font-size: large;">)</span></i><span style="font-size: large;">, I wrote about the dramatic case of a severely amnesic man who ate three full lunches over the space of little more than an hour with apparent gusto. Clearly, in his case, the inability to recall what he’d eaten allowed him to maintain an interest in eating.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri;">
<span style="font-size: large;">A recent study suggests that, for all of us, memory and attention play a crucial role in determining the degree of pleasure we derive from food, and hence how much we are likely to consume. Larson and colleagues [1] asked study participants to view pictures of either sweet or salty foods and rate how appetizing they thought those foods were. The idea was that in making these ratings, the participants were implicitly retrieving experience of those foods from memory. All participants were then asked to eat some salty peanuts and rate how enjoyable these were. If the participants had rated only 20 food pictures, then there was no effect on enjoyment of whether the pictures were of sweet or salty foods. However, after 60 pictures, those who had previously evaluated salty food pictures enjoyed the peanuts much less than those who evaluated sweet food pictures. What was producing this effect? In a subsequent study, the researchers included a condition in which participants were asked only to evaluate the brightness of the food picture and not how appetizing the food in the picture was, and this produced no such effect. As a result, the authors concluded that attending to the food sensory qualities (sweetness or saltiness) and retrieving information from memory was the source of this effect.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri;">
<span style="font-size: large;">This study has a number of crucial implications. The first of these is that it provides evidence of the cross-modal nature of SSS, in that a <i>picture,</i> when allowed to activate prior experiences, could reduce enjoyment of an actual food <i>flavour</i>. We know that different aspects of foods (tastes, odours, textures) are bound together in memory as flavours, and that experiencing one aspect such as an odour can elicit the food’s taste qualities and any positive (sweet) or negative (bitter) qualities the taste may have [2]. This study points to a similar integration of visual and taste/odour food properties, also with hedonic consequences.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Secondly, these authors suggest that such effects may be in operation when we view advertising or other cues to foods, if these cues cause us to imagine the experience of the food based on our memory. That is, rehearsing the experience of a food in response to a cue will cause us to experience less enjoyment of the food itself and potentially to reduce the amount eaten. If true, this runs contrary to what we know about the effect of environmental cues, which are known to trigger eating <i>[3]. </i>This apparent paradox may be due to the fact that those affected by cues most are those suffering from hedonic hunger – that is, those who have deprived themselves of highly palatable foods. In their case, relative lack of recent memory for such foods may be the issue.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; min-height: 19px;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri;">
<span style="font-size: large;">One final implication of this study concerns the phenomenon of mindless eating<i> </i>(see February, 2012: <a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2014_02_01_archive.html" target="_blank"> <i>Unaware eating</i></a>), in which attention diverted from eating – for example, by watching TV – leads to higher consumption. The Larson study suggests that it is possible that paying attention to food while we are eating is necessary for SSS to occur because it requires access to prior memories. Perhaps we therefore experience less SSS with novel foods, for which we have no memories?</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; min-height: 15px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13px;">
____________________________________________________</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Larson, J.S., J.P. Redden, and R.S. Elder, <i>Satiation from sensory simulation: Evaluating foods decreases enjoyment of similar foods.</i> Journal of Consumer Psychology, 2014. <b>24</b>(2): p. 188-194.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Prescott, J. and R.J. Stevenson, <i>Chemosensory Integration and the Perception of Flavor.</i>, in <i>Handbook of Olfaction & Gustation: Modern Perspectives.</i>, R.L. Doty, Editor. 2015. p. 1008-1028.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
3. Fedoroff, I., J. Polivy, and C.P. Herman, <i>The specificity of restrained versus unrestrained eaters’ responses to food cues: general desire to eat, or craving for the cued food?</i> Appetite, 2003. <b>41</b>: p. 7-13.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-90815938152662533212015-05-16T22:33:00.000+10:002016-08-29T11:43:09.041+10:00Smelling like a dog<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
Pretty much everyone (excluding you and I, of course) agrees that, for humans, smell and taste are the minor senses. Read a psychology or physiology text and you’ll see what I mean – huge attention paid to vision, then hearing, then touch and then …. ok, I suppose we should tack on half a page about smell and a few lines on taste, the latter sometimes accompanied by the now discredited tongue map of taste perceptions. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
There’s no doubt that the human chemosenses are minor if judged by the amount of attention we have paid to them in the past. How else could we possibly explain that something so apparently fundamental as which parts of the tongue were sensitive to which tastes was transmitted through generations in error? And as recently as twenty years ago, quite a few taste scientists firmly believed that a total of four primary tastes was it. Now we can barely open a journal without falling over evidence for some new basic quality – fat, starch, umami, calcium, rubber. Ok, only my own data, rather hastily collected late one night point to the last one.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
There is really nothing very unique about the chemosenses – accepted ideas are overturned in science all the time. But given the relative paucity of research in this area compared to other sensory systems, it would seem that there is a greater risk that chemosensory scientists will spend their time looking for new receptors or ion channels or orbito-frontal Christmas lights rather than going over old ground. Not many of us want to spend our time navel-gazing in front of the fire, sherry in hand, wondering what we actually know after all. Surely that’s the job of those Cartesians in the philosophy department on the floor below.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
Which makes it all the more unusual and refreshing when someone does do this. At the recent <i>Association for Chemoreception Sciences</i> meeting (<a href="http://www.achems.org/"><span style="color: #0433ff;">www.achems.org</span></a>), Matthias Laska of Linköping University in Sweden was motivated to question something that we all know to be ‘true’ [1]. This is the almost self-evident fact that many mammals – the dog is the foremost example – are much more sensitive to smells than are humans. You believe this, don’t you? And the reason is ….. ? If you’d have asked me a month ago, I would have agreed with you, and I would no doubt have said that I’ll be able to dig up the data – just give me a day or two.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
Laska did do the necessary olfactory archaeology and the evidence is, in fact, …. missing. In other words, he did not find even moderately strong evidence for human inferiority in olfactory sensitivity. Laska examined published detection threshold values (that is, the lowest concentration of a compound that can be detected) for humans and compared them with those from a variety of other mammals. The list included dogs, rats, mice, bats, pigs, primates, seals and otters – so at least some mammals who seem to spend their days snuffling along the ground or twitching their noses. Because methods often vary, he took a quite conservative approach to the comparison, and only contrasted mean human threshold values (which would contain high as well as low values) with the lowest individual values reported for each other species.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
The interest began at the onset of this research. While he estimated that thresholds for around 3300 odourants had been determined for humans, this number quickly fell for other mammals: a couple of hundred for different primates, 72 in the mouse, 45 in the rat, and a grand total of 15 odourants tested with dogs! In the comparison of actual threshold values with rats, bats, mice, monkey and otters, humans come out very well on the majority of odourants on which they and we have both been tested. And dogs? Well, they beat us on 10 of the 15 odourants for which there are data in common. They are mostly better than us at detecting carboxylic acids, for example, but much worse for alcohols and slightly worse for the few acetic esters on which we have been compared.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
But the key issue here is not which compounds are higher or lower, but rather that the total number of odourants tested on dogs is so low, that even the slight advantage that dogs have in number of odourants for which they have tested as more sensitive is insufficient to be the basis of a supposed fact regarding dog superiority.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
So, from where does this notion arise? Clearly, not from the scientific literature. My guess is from watching dog behavior. When your nose is that close to the ground, there’s an awful lot of information that you can gather that never reaches human noses, held aloft as they are. And let’s face it, dogs seem so <i>very</i> interested in all sorts of smells. As well, there are scientific data that, if not exactly proof, very strongly suggest this interpretation. As reported in an earlier blog (<a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.it/2014/01/nothing-to-be-sniffed-at.html"><span style="color: #0433ff; font-size: 15px;">http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.it/2014/01/nothing-to-be-sniffed-at.html</span></a>), a clever experiment by Porter and colleagues [2] showed in 2007 that humans, like dogs, could successfully track a scent in an open-air environment once their noses were down amongst the grass.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
All that appears to be left to our canine companions is their much better ability to recognize odours, including those of other dogs and multiple humans, and also their skills at being great detectors of drugs, explosives and so on. But even shortly after birth, babies can recognize their mother’s underarm odour, distinguish it from that of other mothers of newborns [3], and the rest of us are generally able to distinguish scents from older and younger people [4]. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
In contrast, though, humans are notoriously poor at odour identification. We can’t reliably even label foods that we eat regularly purely by their smell. Unless, of course, we are trained. There is no possibility that you or I, if we aren’t trained, can identify by smell the origin of a wine, coffee, or tea, but there are those who have trained for extensive periods that can do just that. Moreover, I can smell two wines and know that they differ but not know in what way. In contrast, my wine enthusiast friends or trained wine judges can immediately spot the “sweaty saddle” note in one and the “stewed prunes” in another, and this ability also serves to help them recognize each wine next time they encounter it. Indeed, there are few odour discrimination, recognition or identification tasks that humans do not seem capable of performing given sufficient training. It’s possible that if we spent the same amount of time as dogs sniffing each other’s ….. you get the picture.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
At this same recent <i>AChemS</i>, there was another intriguing presentation that gave us further reasons to be proud of our own sense of smell. The reasons for having two eyes or two ears are obvious, namely stereoscopic vision and binaural hearing, both of which help to locate the origins of shapes and sounds in our environment. But two nostrils? Data presented by Wang and Chen from Baylor College of Medicine in the USA [5] show that sniffing a pair of odourants with both nostrils enhances detectability of an odourant, relative to sniffing the same odourant with both nostrils. Hence, pulling in different smell information with each nostril stimulates a comparison process that “sharpens” the information available. Not such a minor sense after all.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13px;">
<span style="text-decoration: underline;">__________________________________________________________________</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; min-height: 18px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Laska, M., <i>Busting a myth: Humans are not generally less sensitive to odors than nonhuman mammals</i>, in <i>Association of Chemoreception Sciences</i>. 2015: Bonita Springs, Fl, USA.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Porter, J., et al., <i>Mechanisms of scent-tracking in humans.</i> Nature Neurosci., 2007. <b>10</b>(1): p. 27-29.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Cernoch, J.M. and R.H. Porter, <i>Recognition of maternal axillary odors by infants.</i> Child Dev, 1985. <b>56</b>: p. 1593-1598.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
4. Mitro, S., et al., <i>The smell of age: perception and discrimination of body odors of different ages.</i> PLoS One, 2012. <b>7</b>(5): p. e38110.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
5. Wang, J. and D. Chen, <i>Stereo olfaction sharpens sense of smell </i>in <i>Association for Chemoreception Sciences</i>. 2015: Bonita Springs, Fl, USA.</div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-65457551046928470192015-03-23T16:18:00.001+11:002015-03-23T16:18:22.065+11:00The hot topic<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
A few times every year, and without too much effort, you’ll find articles about the “hows and whys” of liking for hot (spicy) foods. Most recently, there was “Learning to Like Spicier Food” and “What’s Driving the Global Chili Pepper Craze” in the USA magazines <i>The Atlantic</i> and <i>Forbes</i>, respectively [both <a href="https://flipboard.com/@johnprescoth1h7"><span style="color: #0433ff;">featured conveniently in Taste Matters on Flipboard</span></a>]. Now, I’d like to be able to say that these particular articles actually revealed the drivers of the chilli ‘craze’ or the exact mechanisms of chilli liking. However, scientists such as Paul Rozin attempted to answer both questions some years ago [1], but without reaching an obvious conclusion, and the same questions continue to be raised.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
Chilli is not like other foods. We don’t, for example, tend to see long articles exploring the conundrum of ice cream or chocolate preferences. It’s fat and it’s sugar and they’re delicious …. what’s the issue? Chilli, on the other hand, contains compounds that, when they aren’t being added to foods, are being sprayed into the faces of criminals, students and other less desirable members of society. Indeed, the effects in both cases are not entirely dissimilar: tearing, pain, facial flushing and excessive salivation. In neither case, does our body seem to be welcoming a dose of capsaicin.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
And yet …. chilli, from its origins as a relatively localized crop in central and south America, has become the most used spice worldwide, and the second most added food ingredient after salt. We can’t all be masochists, surely? There are two questions to answer. The first of these is why any individual would voluntarily eat something that was painful. Secondly, why have so many societies – Korea, Mexico, India, Vietnam, Thailand, amongst many others – made hot spices a central part of their cuisine’s <a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2012/01/mathematics-of-flav"><span style="color: #0433ff;">flavour principle</span></a>? These are not the same question, but on a different scale. In very many societies, sections of the population eat odd things – oysters, <i>natto</i>, Vegemite – without such delicacies taking over the world.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
A variety of explanations have been proposed to attempt to explain the ubiquity of chilli and other pungent spices (pepper, ginger, cinnamon, mustard). These include that fact that the chilli plant is a fast growing source of vitamins, especially C and A; that it increases salivation and hence better digestion of foods; and that it promotes perspiration and thus heat loss in warm climates. These all sound plausible reasons, but they lack any evidence to support them [2].</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
There really is no obvious connection between the cuisines of those countries that have adopted chilli, nor any obvious difference between those that are and are not especially spicy. Why Korea and not Japan, for example? Had Japan not been resistant to foreign influences until relatively recently, would its soba be spicy? Geographical isolation aside, one clue to the widespread uptake of chilli may lie in the nature of dietary staples in chilli consuming countries. In Mexico, the cuisine is based on corn, in South-East and other parts of Asia, rice – both bland staples. It may be that chilli provides a way of providing interest and flavor impact to otherwise somewhat monotonous diets.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
To be convincing though, this argument needs to apply elsewhere, rather than in just warm-climate cultures and their chilli-dominated cuisines. The expeditions of Christopher Columbus to central America are widely regarded as the source of the introduction of chilli to the rest of the world. It is useful to recall why he was sailing in the first place, and that is to find a convenient route to the sources of spices in Asia. In other words, spice-wise he really was very lucky. Europe as a whole proved a tough sell for chilli, but it is unclear why. It may have been the growing climate as much as the heat of the fruit itself. Certainly, chilli is still used in countries such as Spain, Italy and parts of central Europe. Hungary, of course, took the hot chilli and converted it in hot and mild versions of its national spice, paprika. Even Britain has a history of applying other pungent spices to foods with its traditional use of hot mustard and horseradish, and now curries from the subcontinent being the most popular restaurant foods. In the USA, hot sauces are more popular than ketchup. Hence, even in countries where dietary variety is not an issue, spiciness continues to increase.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
It is well known that both flavour impact and complexity in foods are valued, making foods more pleasurable. Pungency in its many forms provides both. Adding bubbles to soft drinks, heat or cooling to foods, and bite to alcohol are all ways of engaging a completely distinct sensory system, mediated by the trigeminal nerves in the tongue, palate, nose and eyes. While this system contains pain fibres, it also responds to other tactile and temperature sensations that can enhance and amplify tastes and odours. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
Even when the burn of a hot dish becomes a little too impactful, and the body produces defensive responses such as salivation and flushing – we are aware that it is harmless. In high chilli-consuming countries, the spice is introduced to children gradually in the secure context of family meals, and there is therefore no anxiety associated with the pain. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
Another piece of evidence supporting idea that chilli is used for flavour impact is the change in response to the burn over time. Regular chilli eaters do show a reduction in burn intensity, but this is minor, and they are not immune from the burning sensations – rather, they actually learn to enjoy them, even if it seems too hot at first [1]. Interviews with both Americans and Mexicans who were asked why they liked chili showed that the majority referred to the piquancy, or the enhancement of flavor of food. Many interviewees claimed to be as sensitive as always to chili, but that they had come to like the hot sensation that they originally disliked. This is also consistent with a view that chilli consumption represents “benign masochism” – effectively getting enjoyment from pain because we know it is harmless. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
A variety of explanations have been put forward to explain the high levels of enthusiasm with which many of us take to very spicy food. It is no surprise to find that real chilli enthusiasts are also “sensation seekers” for all sorts of sensory stimulation. One enduring popular notion is that the burn of chilli releases the body’s own opiates, or endorphins, perhaps via the release of a neurotransmitter called <i>Substance P</i> (which is released in response to pain). The idea is that chilli eating – followed by a little squirt of the body’s own heroin – produces a feeling of well-being could reinforce a sort of spice addiction. Attempts to demonstrate this have yet to produce any evidence for such a mechanism, but it is at least consistent with findings that chilli burn is reduced by sweet tastes, and vice versa [3]. The pleasantness of sweet tastes are also thought to be mediated by endorphins, and it is well known that sweetness can increase tolerance for pain [4].</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
___________________________________________________</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Rozin, P. and D. Schiller, <i>The nature and acquisition of a preference for chili pepper by humans.</i> Motiv. Emot., 1980. <b>4</b>(1): p. 77-101.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Prescott, J. and R.J. Stevenson, <i>Pungency in food perception and preference.</i> Food Rev. Int., 1995. <b>11</b>(4): p. 665-698.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Prescott, J., S. Allen, and L. Stephens, <i>Interactions between oral chemical irritation, taste and temperature.</i> Chem. Senses, 1993. <b>18</b>(4): p. 389-404.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
4. Barr, R.G., et al., <i>The response of crying newborns to sucrose: Is it a “Sweetness” effect?</i> Physiol. Behav., 1999. <b>66</b>(3): p. 409-417.</div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-29571141084935633612015-02-17T18:22:00.001+11:002015-02-19T11:59:31.993+11:00Meet the new taste ... same as the old taste?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
Apart from being able to collect on drinks owed from years earlier, a major benefit of attending the same scientific conference over a prolonged period (in my case, <span style="color: #0433ff; text-decoration: underline;">AChemS</span>) is to be able to observe the ebb and flow of controversies within the field. Two decades ago, taste scientists were still debating the validity of <i>umami</i> as a distinct primary/basic taste quality in the same way that sweetness, sourness, saltiness and bitterness had been accepted for generations. </div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
Nowadays, of course, chefs in newspapers and magazines use the term as if it has always been part of their repertoire. Importantly, apart from a few recalcitrant researchers who remain skeptical, the scientific issue has now been put to rest. This has a lot to do with the discovery of a specific taste receptor for glutamate – that is, a protein in taste buds that binds to this prototypical umami tastant and initiates the nerve signal to the brain that we interpret as umami (see also: Full of MSG).</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
To some extent, initial reluctance to accept umami as a primary taste quality was understandable. We had known about the four basic tastes forever – who was this taste come lately? A new candidate must fill all sorts of criteria, including a unique quality, a unique means of transduction (the receptor - see above), and a distinct adaptive reason why we would have evolved to respond to umami substances. To greater and lesser degrees, all of these criteria have been met. </div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
However, when debates over umami were still in full force (ok, that sounds dramatic – there were no actual fights in the conference bar), the issue of whether there were actually taste primaries at all was still relevant. One argument was that our language for taste, restricted as it was to a small number of qualities, essentially forced use to categorise qualities as one taste or another, when perhaps they actually fell into an intermediate state [1]. What, for example, if umami was simply a quality “midway” between salty and sweet?</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
It is not clear what happened to this line of argument; it seemed to just fade away with the years. Like most scientists, those working on tastes are practical and it’s hard to study basic taste qualities if you can’t even agree that such things exist. Add to this the discovery of receptor mechanisms and a clear adaptive argument and these days we are all believers in basic tastes. And recent years have seen an absolute plethora of potential candidates – fat, calcium, starch, and the newest kid on the block, <i>kokumi</i>. </div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
The case for fat being a primary taste is reasonably strong. Sensory scientist and nutritionist Rick Mattes showed almost 20 years ago that we respond to fat – but not fat substitutes - in the mouth with a rise in fats (triglycerides) in the blood, even in the absence of being able to tell the real and fake fats apart when in the mouth [2]. In the intervening period, the evidence for fat taste has grown, and Keast and Costanzo [3] assemble this evidence in a just published review in the journal <i>Flavour</i>.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
In the same issue of this journal, there are two papers that demonstrate the impact of particular peptides (molecules made up of amino acids, like proteins) on the flavour properties of different foods (reduced-fat peanut butter and chicken consommé). In this case, the (desperately in-need of a rename) peptide was <span style="font-family: Helvetica;">γ-glutamyl-valyl-glycine, the effect of which was in both foods to enhance certain sensory properties. </span>For peanut butter, it was a rise in <i>thick flavour, aftertaste, </i>and<i> oiliness</i>, and for the consommé, <i>umami, mouth-filling sensation </i>and<i> mouth-coating</i> were increased. Both of these papers argued that these effects resulted from an increase in a putative new quality, <i>kokumi</i>.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
Actually, <i>kokumi</i> is not <i>very</i> new but, just like <i>umami</i>, it is taking its time to filter out of scientific interest based primarily in Japan. Research to date has hedged its bets about what to call <i>kokumi</i>. It has been referred to as a taste quality, a flavour and a flavour enhancer. This is also very reminiscent of early discussions about umami, before the weight of evidence came down on the side of a distinct primary taste. Earlier studies of <i>kokumi</i> showed that another peptide, glutathione, increased perceptions of continuity (duration), mouthfulness and thickness in foods. It did not affect the intensity of other tastes except umami, with which it seemed to synergise [4]. Like glutamate, too, <i>kokumi</i> peptides are naturally present in foods, which suggests their importance in flavour.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
It is already very well known that other molecules called nucleotides combine with glutamate to increase umami taste. Are <i>kokumi</i> peptides simply boosting umami taste as well? And does it matter whether we call <i>kokumi</i> a taste or a flavour or a flavour enhancer? From a science point of view this is, of course, crucial – the taste system appears based on primary qualities, as noted above, and we should be cautious before adding new tastes to the list. At the very least, a new taste quality means an evolutionary path that has produced specific in-built responses in us and perhaps many other mammals to a quality to help us survive. That is, <i>kokumi</i> might be a primary taste, but we really need to know <i>why</i>?</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
It is just as tricky if we start to use <i>kokumi</i> as a description of a perception. We have taken on umami with enthusiasm, but there is an argument that in English, the term <i>savoury</i> served the same purpose. We can accept the new term however given that we recognize its fundamental taste status. But without this for <i>kokumi</i>, we need to be wary that this term is not agglomerating a number of quite distinct perceptions and merging them under one umbrella. To take an example, if <i>kokumi</i> is defined as a quality of continuity, mouthfulness and thickness, then if thickness is increased or decreased independently of the other two properties, is <i>kokumi</i> affected? In essence, the risk is that we loose information – we start talking about one property, when we should be talking about three.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
None of these issues will determine whether or not future research helps us define <i>kokumi</i> more precisely. But in the meantime, it is worth paying attention to the message advanced regarding umami - that our language could be instrumental in influencing how we actually perceived the qualities that we taste in foods.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13px; min-height: 15px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px;">
<span style="text-decoration: underline;">______________________________________________________________________</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13px; min-height: 15px;">
<span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span><br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>O'Mahony, M. and R. Ishii, <i>The Umami taste concept: Implications for the dogma of four basic tastes</i>, in <i>Umami: A Basic Taste</i>, Y. Kawamura and M.R. Kare, Editors. 1987, Marcel Dekker, Inc.: New York. p. 75-93.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Mattes, R.D., <i>Oral fat exposure alters postprandial lipid metabolism in humans.</i> Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 1996. <b>63</b>: p. 911-917.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Keast, R. and A. Costanzo, <i>Is fat the sixth taste primary? Evidence and implications.</i> Flavour, 2015. <b>4</b>: p. 5.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
4. Ueda, Y., et al., <i>Flavour characteristics of glutathione in raw and cooked foodstuffs.</i> Biosci. Biotech. Biochem., 1997. <b>61</b>(12): p. 1977-1980.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-18800200139368398182015-01-15T18:38:00.000+11:002015-01-22T13:12:03.769+11:00Chemical coffee<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: -10.25pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: -10.25pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: -3.2pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">During the past few
weeks, I have been at the food coalface, engaging in much hands-on flavour
research. These flavours, many of which are soluble in alcohol, provide some of
the key memory elements for this time of year. While providing an ad-hoc
chemical analysis of one such flavour (<u>Result</u>: 2 parts vodka, 1 part
vermouth, a drop of orange peel oil) I read a brief web <a href="https://www.blogger.com/[https://theconversation.com/wake-up-and-smell-the-coffee-its-why-your-cuppa-tastes-so-good-30214]" target="_blank"><span style="color: red;">article on why coffee smells and tastes good</span></a>,
the first part of a series on the chemistry of coffee. There was nothing unique
about this article – it explained, correctly, that coffee is a mixture of many
hundreds of different compounds, the vast majority of which smell not at all
like coffee itself.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">But the article was
very similar in many ways to other articles, especially in the media or on the
internet, that seek to explain preferences for food flavours or other odours in
terms of their chemistry. Another recent article addressed the question of
preference for the odour of bacon in the same way. Now, of course, in some
sense this must be true – the chemical compounds in coffee produce an odour that
is highly liked by many people. Without this mixture of compounds there is
nothing to like. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">This article went
on to talk about odour-activity values, which is the idea that some odours are
detected at much lower quantities (often parts per billion, or even trillion, in
air or solvent) than others and therefore can have a disproportionate impact on
what is being smelled. Hence, if we look at coffee, acetone is present at a
higher proportion than methyl furanol, but even so most coffees (those served
in hospitals and government departments excepted) do not smell like nail-polish
remover, and it is this latter component that comes closest to coffee odour.
Incidentally, this compound tends to be pleasant smelling. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">So far, so (mostly)
good. But … there are three underlying assumptions to linking chemistry and
preference that have to be examined. The first of these is that some compounds,
by virtue of their low thresholds, have a disproportionate impact <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">above</i> threshold. This could be true, but
is not necessarily true, because thresholds are poor predictors of
psychophysical function – that is, the growth of intensity with increasing
concentration. A compound with a low threshold may have a low psychophysical
function, meaning that above threshold its intensity (and hence, presumably,
impact) grows slowly, or it may have a high psychophysical function. Conversely,
there is no theoretical reason why compounds cannot be influential below
threshold – this has been shown, for example, by the impact of sub-threshold
tastes on odour quality </span><!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Arial'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dalton</Author><Year>2000</Year><RecNum>2280</RecNum><DisplayText>[1]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2280</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="0">2280</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Dalton,
P.</author><author>Doolittle,
N.</author><author>Nagata, H.</author><author>Breslin,
P.A.S.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The
merging of the senses: integration of subthreshold taste and
smell</title><secondary-title>Nature
Neuro.</secondary-title><alt-title>Nature
Neuroscience</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Nature
Neuroscience</full-title><abbr-1>Nat
Neurosci</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>431-432</pages><volume>3</volume><number>5</number><keywords><keyword>flavour</keyword><keyword>taste</keyword><keyword>olfaction</keyword><keyword>threshold</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2000</year></dates><label>1870</label><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[1]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Arial'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">. Indeed, inferring
much of anything from odour thresholds is tricky – they can, and do, respond to
repeated experience with the odour </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Arial'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Dalton</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>4485</RecNum><DisplayText>[2]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>4485</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="1306742899">4485</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Dalton,
P.</author><author>Doolittle, N.</author><author>Breslin,
P.
A.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Monell
Chemical Senses Center, 3500 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104,
USA.
pdalton@pobox.upenn.edu</auth-address><titles><title>Gender-specific
induction of enhanced sensitivity to
odors</title><secondary-title>Nature
Neuroscience</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Nature
Neuroscience</full-title><abbr-1>Nat
Neurosci</abbr-1></periodical><pages>199-200</pages><volume>5</volume><number>3</number><edition>2002/02/28</edition><keywords><keyword>Benzaldehydes</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Nitriles</keyword><keyword>*Odors</keyword><keyword>*Sex
Characteristics</keyword><keyword>Smell/*physiology</keyword><keyword>Taste/*physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2002</year><pub-dates><date>Mar</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1097-6256
(Print)&#xD;1097-6256 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>11865309</accession-num><label>1417</label><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11865309</url></related-urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1038/nn803&#xD;nn803
[pii]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[2]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Arial'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The second
assumption behind the chemistry of preferences idea is that, in the sort of
mixtures that constitute most foods and drinks, individual odour qualities can
stick up their hand and be noticed. Thus, in something that smells good, the
pleasant odours in that mixture somehow force their way into our attention
against the background of those odours that are less pleasant … or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">vice versa</i>. Certainly, in the latter
case, it is easy enough to spoil a pleasant odour by dropping in something
nasty.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Here, too, though
the science doesn’t back up this assumption. David Laing showed in the early
1990s that in typical mixtures of very many odours, the influence of individual
odours rapidly disappears as the mixture approaches and then passes four
components. This is true even if you are highly familiar with each of the
components and it is also true even if you are an odour expert such as a
flavourist or perfumer </span><!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Arial'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Laing</Author><Year>1989</Year><RecNum>1125</RecNum><DisplayText>[3]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>1125</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="0">1125</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Laing,
D.G.</author><author>Francis,
G.W.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The
capacity of humans to identify odors in
mixtures</title><secondary-title>Physiol.
Behav.</secondary-title><alt-title>Physiology &amp;
Behavior</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Physiology
&amp; Behavior</full-title><abbr-1>Physiol
Behav</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>809-814</pages><volume>46</volume><keywords><keyword>olfaction</keyword><keyword>odours</keyword><keyword>mixtures</keyword><keyword>human</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1989</year></dates><label>431</label><urls><pdf-urls><url>file://localhost/Users/admin/WORD%20DOCUMENTS/PAPERS/reprint%20downloads/Laing_ref431.pdf</url></pdf-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[3]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Arial'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">. The implications
of this work are profound and the results of Laing’s well-replicated
experiments have met with some resistance from those who aim is to link
chemistry of individual components to the smell of the compound made from those
components.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In essence, then, a
complex, pleasant mixture such as coffee really needs to contain no compounds that are
either coffee-like or pleasant. The odour quality of the mixture is a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">gestalt</i> – both more than the sum of its
parts and mostly unpredictable from the contributions of its parts. So, how
does this new quality emerge? This is as yet unknown, and to a degree,
mysterious. How, for example, can a wine made from sauvignon blanc grapes smell
like white wine (a gestalt), sauvignon blanc wine (also a gestalt), and also
have notes that smell like cut grass, asparagus, cat’s pee (seldom present …
ok, perhaps in New Zealand wines) and so on?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">We <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">can</i> say that it is not about chemical
interactions in the mixture. Laing’s experiments were done with mixtures of <u>odours
not odourants</u>. Hence, the odour mixture property is perceptual - that is, a
product of olfactory processing and interpretation in the brain. Beyond that,
we know little. But this fact does help to explain how cognitive processes such
as attention can facilitate or hinder (to a real, but limited degree) the
blending of different chemical compounds into a distinct odour quality </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Arial'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Le
Berre</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>2908</RecNum><DisplayText>[4]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2908</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="0">2908</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal
Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Le
Berre, E.</author><author>Thomas-Danguin, T.</author><author>Beno,
N.</author><author>Coureaud,
G.</author><author>Etievant, P.</author><author>Prescott,
J.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Perceptual
processing strategy and exposure influence the perception of odor
mixtures</title><secondary-title>Chem. Senses</secondary-title><alt-title>Chemical
Senses</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Chem.
Senses</full-title><abbr-1>Chemical
Senses</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Chem.
Senses</full-title><abbr-1>Chemical Senses</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>193-199</pages><volume>33</volume><keywords><keyword>attention</keyword><keyword>exposure</keyword><keyword>associative
learning</keyword><keyword>odour</keyword><keyword>odor</keyword><keyword>mixtures</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year></dates><urls><pdf-urls><url>file://localhost/Users/admin/WORD%20DOCUMENTS/PAPERS/ODOUR:TASTE:FLAVOUR/Elodie_paper/LeBerre_2008.pdf</url></pdf-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[4]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Arial'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The final
assumption underlying a chemistry of preferences is that some odours are
inherently liked or disliked and that this is a property of the odourant
compound. Like other negatives, it is impossible to prove that this is not the
case, at least with some odours. Cadaverine, the product of rotting flesh,
could well be a candidate as it appears to be universally repulsive. However,
we can show that likes and dislikes for the majority of odours, and certainly
food odours, are learned through repeated exposure, or pairing with pleasant
tastes/experiences or metabolically useful nutrients </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Arial'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Prescott</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>5692</RecNum><DisplayText>[5]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>5692</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="1336359628">5692</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal
Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author><style
face="normal" font="default"
size="12">Prescott,
J.</style></author></authors></contributors><titles><title><style
face="normal" font="default"
size="12">Chemosensory learning and flavour: Perception,
preference and
intake</style></title><secondary-title><style
face="normal" font="default" size="12">Physiol
Behav</style></secondary-title><alt-title><style face="normal"
font="default" size="12">Physiology &amp;
Behavior</style></alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Physiology
&amp; Behavior</full-title><abbr-1>Physiol
Behav</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Physiology
&amp; Behavior</full-title><abbr-1>Physiol
Behav</abbr-1></alt-periodical><keywords><keyword>flavour</keyword><keyword>learning</keyword><keyword>conditioning</keyword><keyword>preference</keyword><keyword>perception</keyword><keyword>intake</keyword></keywords><dates><year><style
face="normal" font="default"
size="12">2012</style></year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[5]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Arial'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">These mechanisms of
associative learning are well known, but we really only need to look at
variations between individuals or across cultures to see this convincingly
demonstrated. Let’s take one example. Sheepmeat (lamb; mutton) is well-accepted
in many Western countries, where children begin to be exposed to its odour and flavour
from a very young age. In those countries in which eating sheep is not the
norm, there is considerable resistance to adding it to the local cuisine. This
isn’t based on sympathy for the cute little lambs, but rather the presence in
their meat of the compounds <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">skatole</i> and
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">octanoic acid</i>, the former fecal and
the latter like a barnyard on a hot day </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Arial'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Prescott</Author><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>4656</RecNum><DisplayText>[6]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>4656</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="1306828946">4656</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Prescott,
J.</author><author>Young,
O.</author><author>O&apos;Neill,
L.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Prescott,
J&#xD;Univ Otago, Sensory Sci Res Ctr, Dunedin, New Zealand&#xD;Univ
Otago, Sensory Sci Res Ctr, Dunedin, New Zealand&#xD;Univ Otago, Sensory
Sci Res Ctr, Dunedin, New Zealand&#xD;AgRes, Hamilton, New
Zealand</auth-address><titles><title>The impact of variations
in flavour compounds on meat acceptability: a comparison of Japanese and New
Zealand consumers</title><secondary-title>Food Quality and
Preference</secondary-title><alt-title>Food Qual
Prefer</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Food
Quality and Preference</full-title><abbr-1>Food Qual
Prefer</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Food
Quality and Preference</full-title><abbr-1>Food Qual
Prefer</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>257-264</pages><volume>12</volume><number>4</number><keywords><keyword>sheepmeat</keyword><keyword>acceptability</keyword><keyword>branched
chained fatty
acids</keyword><keyword>skatole</keyword><keyword>japan</keyword><keyword>new
zealand</keyword><keyword>consumers</keyword><keyword>liking</keyword><keyword>sheepmeat
odor</keyword><keyword>mutton</keyword><keyword>acid</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2001</year><pub-dates><date>Jun</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0950-3293</isbn><accession-num>ISI:000168316600004</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>&lt;Go
to
ISI&gt;://000168316600004</url></related-urls></urls><language>English</language></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[6]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Arial'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">. To you these
compounds are the inviting aromas of a roast dinner; to many others, they are
….. somewhat less so. But importantly, with repeated exposure, even these
demonstrably initially unpleasant odours can come to get the gastric juices
flowing. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>JA</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
<w:UseFELayout/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="276">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<!--EndFragment--><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 7.1pt; margin-right: 3.9pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The
chemically-independent origin of preferences allows too for cognitive
influences, explaining how we can be encouraged to like or dislike foods
because of what we know about their origin or composition. You are much more
likely to find the presence of trichloranisole found in some wines as
unpleasant if you know about its origin as a taint from cork. Alternatively, it
may be that many people show a liking for the vile vegetable <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">du jour</i>, kale, merely because they feel that
it has health benefits.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: -10.25pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: -10.25pt;">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>JA</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
<w:UseFELayout/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="276">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<!--EndFragment--></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -10.25pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt;"><o:p> ____________________________________________________________</o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -10.25pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt;"><o:p><br /></o:p></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 4.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -10.2pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>JA</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
<w:UseFELayout/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="276">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<!--EndFragment--></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 4.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -10.2pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;">1.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Dalton, P.,
et al., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The merging of the senses:
integration of subthreshold taste and smell.</i> Nature Neuroscience, 2000. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">3</b>(5): p. 431-432.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 4.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -10.2pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;">2.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Dalton, P.,
N. Doolittle, and P.A. Breslin, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gender-specific
induction of enhanced sensitivity to odours.</i> Nature Neuroscience, 2002. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">5</b>(3): p. 199-200.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 4.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -10.2pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;">3.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Laing, D.G.
and G.W. Francis, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The capacity of humans
to identify odours in mixtures.</i> Physiology & Behavior, 1989. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">46</b>: p. 809-814.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 4.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -10.2pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;">4.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Le Berre, E.,
et al., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Perceptual processing strategy
and exposure influence the perception of odour mixtures.</i> Chemical Senses,
2008. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">33</b>: p. 193-199.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 4.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -10.2pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;">5.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Prescott, J.,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Chemosensory learning and flavour:
Perception, preference and intake.</i> Physiology & Behavior, 2012. </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">107</span></i></b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">, 553-559</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -10.25pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>JA</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
<w:UseFELayout/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="276">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt;font-family:
Arial;mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝";mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><!--EndFragment--></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 4.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -10.2pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">6.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Prescott, J.,
O. Young, and L. O'Neill, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The impact of
variations in flavour compounds on meat acceptability: a comparison of Japanese
and New Zealand consumers.</i> Food Quality and Preference, 2001. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">12</b>(4): p. 257-264.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt;font-family:
Arial;mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝";mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><!--EndFragment--><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -10.25pt;">
<br /></div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-39026594361153384102014-10-31T15:39:00.000+11:002014-10-31T15:40:55.870+11:00 (De)constructing flavours<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">… and
in breaking news, chocolate flavour and vanilla flavour are different from one
another. But what actually makes flavours different? Clearly, both of these flavours
are sweet, so we recognize that the non-sweet bit – the inherent chocolaty-ness
or vanilla-ness – is the essential difference. And these qualities are, of
course, due to volatiles – in other words, they are smells, perceived via the
retronasal (back of the mouth) route to our smell receptors in the nose. So,
clearly flavours are combinations of smells and tastes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">But
what about other sensory information? If we wanted to accurately describe the flavour
of a curry we’d also no doubt also say the flavour is hot or spicy; similarly,
the flavour of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Coca-Cola</i> is fizzy and
that of vodka has ‘bite’. The inclusion of this type of sensory information in
our definition of flavours is not especially controversial – after all, a curry
without the spiciness seems not a curry at all. More to the point, our mouths
contain endings of the trigeminal nerve that are responsible for picking up
those chemical signals that lead to perceptions of chemical heat, temperature,
and sensations of dryness, prickliness and bite. These same nerve endings may
also contribute to the experience of taste.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Stepping
outside the mouth though, we are confronted with vast quantities of sensory
information that contributes to our experience of a food’s sensory properties.
Several overviews in recent years have discussed the importance of vision,
hearing, and touch (outside the mouth) in influencing our perceptions of what
goes on in the mouth during eating </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE <span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA <![if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:data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w:data>
</xml><![endif]><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[1, 2]</span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:data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w:data>
</xml><![endif]--></span><!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(see also <a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2013_11_01_archive.html" target="_blank"><span style="color: #cc0000;">previous posting</span></a>)</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> In a new
book by Spence and Piqueras-Fiszman </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Spence</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>6889</RecNum><DisplayText>[3]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>6889</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="1414721296">6889</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Spence,
C.</author><author>Piqueras-Fiszman,
B.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The
Perfect Meal. The multisensory science of food and
dining.</title></titles><dates><year>2014</year></dates><pub-location>Chichester</pub-location><publisher>John
Wiley &amp; Sons</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[3]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">, the recent research
on the impact of properties like colour, shape and weight in the cutlery,
crockery and physical environment of food perceptions and preferences are
detailed. Does that mean each of these influences must be included within our
definition of flavour? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Some
researchers do, in fact, suggest this. They propose, for example, that food
features such as crunchiness, the result of both sounds and feedback from
pressure sensors in the teeth and gums, are intrinsic to the flavour of some
foods. <a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2012/05/great-expectations.html" target="_blank"><span style="color: #cc0000;">Previously</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; line-height: 150%;">,</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> I
discussed the role of expectations – essentially the product of our memory for
what belongs with what – as another important influence on flavour experiences.
So, potentially, if we wished to be broad enough, flavours could be perceptions
involving multiple near and far senses, as well as input from memories.
Suddenly, the mouth and what goes on inside it becomes only part of our concept
of flavours.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Does it
really matter how broadly we define flavours? We can distinguish between the
sound of an orchestra and the impact that the acoustics and seat comfort of the
hall in which it is heard have on our experience of the music. Similarly, there
are good reasons to divide our food experiences into mouth-based sensations, on
the one hand, and other sensory information that impinge on our perception or
enjoyment of these sensations, on the other. Thus, we are able to experience
flavours without any input from any senses <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">except</i>
smell and taste. To be chocolate flavour, a little square of fat, sugar and
miscellaneous odour compounds does not require the colour brown, or even the
sensation of melting, but it does require chocolate aroma and sweet taste in
all cases. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Recent
studies of the brain’s processing of smell and taste have identified a network of
neural structures that appears to encode for flavour, as distinct from odours
and tastes separately </span><!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Small</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>2916</RecNum><DisplayText>[4]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2916</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="0">2916</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Small,
D.M.</author><author>Bender,
G.</author><author>Veldhuizen,
M.G.</author><author>Rudenga,
K.</author><author>Nachtigal,
D.</author><author>Felsted, J.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The
role of the human orbitofrontal cortex in taste and flavor
processing</title><secondary-title>Ann. N.Y. Acad.
Sci.</secondary-title><alt-title>Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences</alt-title></titles><pages>136-151</pages><volume>1121</volume><keywords><keyword>orbito-frontal
cortex</keyword><keyword>taste</keyword><keyword>flavour</keyword><keyword>fMRI</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2007</year></dates><label>2734</label><urls><pdf-urls><url>file://localhost/Users/admin/WORD%20DOCUMENTS/PAPERS/reprint%20downloads/Small_ref2734.pdf</url></pdf-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[4]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">. Indeed, the
brain appears to process the same odour differently, depending on whether it is
experienced in the mouth as part of a flavour or external to the mouth, when
sniffed. The brain is fundamentally a processor of multisensory signals,
largely because integration of different sources of sensory information is biologically
useful. An important question, though, relates to the adaptive significance of
the ‘construction’ of flavours – why do discrete neural circuits, for example,
represent flavours rather than simply odours and tastes separately? It is
generally proposed that, in the case of foods, it is the combination of tastes
and odours together that reliably tell us whether an object is a food that is
fit to eat. However, it is clearly not <u>only</u> about identifying foods. While
it can be argued that it is taste and odour together that allow us recognize
pear as a pear, in practice, once it is familiar the pear odour is sufficient.
In a world without taste, trial and error would allow one to distinguish pears
from apples and could even tell you whether or not pears were safe to eat. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The
most important consequence of integrating odours and tastes may be primarily
about pleasure. From the perspective of food preferences, flavours seem to be
fundamental units. This is because, at birth (or in the case of salt, shortly
thereafter), we are hedonically inflexible when it comes to basic tastes –
sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami. Our likes and dislikes appear to be pre-set
as an adaptive mechanism to ensure intake of nutrients (sweetness, saltiness,
umami) and avoid toxins or otherwise harmful substances (bitterness, sourness).
On the other hand, there is little evidence that odour preferences are other
than the result of experience, a process that may begin in the womb.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Repeatedly
experiencing odours with tastes attaches additional meaning to the odour that
is primarily hedonic, that is, pleasure-related. The pear flavour that is not
bitter, not too sour, and quite sweet provides pleasure in the eating. In other
words, we are motivated to consume it because of its sweet taste and the prior
associations with the calories that the sweetness, and subsequently (through
repeated experience), that the pear flavour itself signals. And, of course,
this occurs even prior to eating: pear odour repeatedly paired with a sweet
taste itself becomes pleasant. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">perceptual</i> consequences of integration of
odours and tastes can be interpreted in the same way. The well-known phenomena
of food odours being described in terms of tastes – the sweet smell of vanilla
or the sour smell of vinegar – also arise from the repeated pairing of the
odour with a taste, sweetness or sourness, respectively. But, these perceptual
qualities also have hedonic consequences: sweet-smelling odours are pleasant
and this quality may in itself motivate consumption even if we cannot identify
the actual odour or its source. Conversely, something with a bitter or sour smelling
odour is unlikely to be eaten, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">especially</i>
if we cannot recognize the odour. As such, these perceptual changes to odours
may help compensate for the fact that odour identification is particularly
difficult even for common foods.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hence,
the key purpose of odour/taste integration is not that it aids identification <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">per se</i> (although it might), but rather
that it gives an hedonic value to the flavour, which crucially it the defining
characteristic of the food. Thus, flavours can be most accurately seen as “objects”
constructed for their hedonic qualities. Initial, “gut” responses to foods are
almost always hedonic, and this naturally precedes accepting or rejecting the
food. Thus, what we perceive when we sit down to dinner are, thankfully,
integrated pleasure-inducing perceptions – <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">spaghetti
al pomodoro</i> and a nice Chianti – rather than a collection of independent,
hedonically-diverse tastes, odours and textures.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<u><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-tab-count: 10;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<u><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-tab-count: 10;"><br /></span></span></u></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -3.2pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-family:Calibri'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.REFLIST <span style='mso-element:
field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">1.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Delwiche,
J., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The impact of perceptual interactions
on perceived flavor.</i> Food Qual Pref, 2004. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">15</b>(2): p. 137-146.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -3.2pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;">2.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Prescott, J. and R.J. Stevenson, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Chemosensory Integration and the Perception
of Flavor.</i>, in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Handbook of Olfaction
& Gustation: Modern Perspectives.</i>, R.L. Doty, Editor 2014. p. In press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -3.2pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;">3.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Spence, C. and B. Piqueras-Fiszman, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Perfect Meal. The multisensory science
of food and dining.</i>2014, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -3.2pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;">4.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Small, D.M., et al., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The role of the human orbitofrontal cortex
in taste and flavor processing.</i> Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 2007. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">1121</b>: p. 136-151.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: 3.9pt;">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>JA</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
<w:UseFELayout/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="276">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<!--EndFragment--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -17.35pt;">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>JA</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
<w:UseFELayout/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="276">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<!--EndFragment--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-right: 3.9pt;">
<br /></div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-71283605581332556812014-09-23T16:26:00.000+10:002015-01-15T17:48:08.744+11:00Leaving a bad taste<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Some
emotion researchers suggest there are only a very small number of universal emotions:
fear, anger, happiness, sadness, surprise, and disgust (see October, 2013: <a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2013/10/feeling-all-emotional.html">http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2013/10/feeling-all-emotional.html</a>).
All other emotion terms, in this view, reflect these basic emotions. But even
if you are inclined to believe that there are dozens, if not hundreds, of
distinct emotional states, there remains one common indivisible emotion, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">disgust</i>. Disgust sits alone in the cathedral
of emotions, shunned even by <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">dislike, guilty
</i>and<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> worried</i>. When talking about
emotions elicited by foods, the uniqueness of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">disgust</i> is rather …. unique, in that it is the only emotion that
specifically implies a relationship to our sense of taste. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">But,
of course, foods are not supposed to disgust us, and fortunately most of us
seldom come across examples of foods that do. Moreover, although our potential
experience and expression disgust is innate, we need to learn what things should
make us disgusted. It is a familiar enough scenario where a mother mimics the
classic disgust face to a child about to eat something they have picked up from
a footpath. With just a wrinkle of the nose, a baring of the upper teeth and a
gaping mouth (and perhaps a “Yuk!”), the mother teaches the child a lesson
about the potential dangers of otherwise edible items contaminated by …. who
knows what, but certainly something that might cause disease. This common sense
view is generally supported too by theoretical accounts of the evolutionary
purpose of such a strong emotion which stress its role as disease-prevention
mechanism </span><!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;
line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Oaten</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>3074</RecNum><DisplayText>[1]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>3074</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="0">3074</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal
Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Oaten,
M.J.</author><author>Stevenson,
R.J.</author><author>Case, T.I.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Disgust
as a Disease-Avoidance Mechanism</title><secondary-title>PSYCHOL.
BULL.</secondary-title><alt-title>Psychological
Bulletin</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Psychological
Bulletin</full-title><abbr-1>Psychol
Bull</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>303-321</pages><volume>135</volume><number>2</number><keywords><keyword>disgust</keyword><keyword>disease</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2009</year></dates><label>2798</label><urls><pdf-urls><url>file://localhost/Users/admin/WORD%20DOCUMENTS/PUBLICATIONS/TASTE%20MATTERS/RESOURCES/DISGUST/Oaten_2798.pdf</url></pdf-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[1]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Indeed,
we could argue that disgust – despite the origins of the word – has little to
do with taste or foods <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">per se</i>. Paul
Rozin has characterized disgust as the emotional aspect of fear of
contamination through, in the case of foods, consumption. Hence, food is just
one of those things that we stick in out mouths that could potentially cause us
harm via contamination. It is easy to show that food likes and dislikes show an
inconsistent relationship to disgust. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">So,
foods that are highly unpleasant, for example by being bitter, do not
necessarily, or even often,</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> induce feelings of </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">disgust. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And, of course, it is possible for us to
recognize that foods from other cultures could potentially taste great and be
full of important nutrients, even if the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">idea</i>
of them caused a distinct shuddering of the spine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">We can see an illustration of this in
the recent enthusiasm for insects as potential food sources in the future. A
small, but growing, movement is examining how best to take advantage of the nutrients
that insects can provide, and considering how best to deal with consumer
responses to this </span><!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US
style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri;mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman"'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Verbeke</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>6795</RecNum><DisplayText>[2]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>6795</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="1411443701">6795</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal
Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Verbeke,
W.
</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Profiling
consumers who are ready to adopt insects as a meat substitute in a Western
society</title><secondary-title>Food Qual Pref</secondary-title><alt-title>Food
Quality and Preference</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Food
Qual
Pref</full-title></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Food
Quality and Preference</full-title><abbr-1>Food Qual
Prefer</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>147-155</pages><volume>39</volume><keywords><keyword>insects</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2015</year></dates><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2014.07.008</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[2]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri;
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. Because of this interest, which is strong
in Denmark, I was recently treated to a lunch provided by the Nordic Food Lab (<a href="http://www.nordicfoodlab.org/">www.nordicfoodlab.org</a>), in which the
menu contained a dish labeled “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Peas and
Bees</i>”. The label was perfectly descriptive, and I managed to overcome my
urge to say “thank you, I’m already full”. Those expecting little yellow and
black highlights against the green background would have been disappointed,
however, as only bee larvae were used.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Disgust
doesn’t always require extreme foods or obvious contamination. Perfectly clean,
everyday foods in perfectly clean bedpans will do it, as will being offered a
glass of water into which a <u>plastic</u> model of a cockroach has been briefly
dipped. In an earlier posting, I noted the extreme reactions to a choc-mint
flavoured potato crisp (November, 2013: <a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2013/11/colour-me-minty.html">http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2013/11/colour-me-minty.html</a>).
In many respects, this response to violation of expectations is a co-opting of
so-called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">core</i> disgust (that is,
associated with ingestion of a potential contaminant) to cover a situation in
which the unpredictability of the flavour could be a signal for possible
danger.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">A
broadening of the disgust emotion to include those situations where
contamination in the physical sense is not a risk is also evident. We talk, for
example, about being disgusted by violence or by someone’s behavior or their
appearance or their table manners. At least some of these reactions can be
included under the term <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">moral disgust</i>.
Rozin </span><!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;
line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Rozin</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>6793</RecNum><DisplayText>[3]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>6793</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="1411432926">6793</key><key
app="ENWeb"
db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Rozin,
P.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>From
Oral to
Moral</title><secondary-title>Science</secondary-title><alt-title>Science</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Science</full-title><abbr-1>Science</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Science</full-title><abbr-1>Science</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>1179-1180</pages><volume>323</volume><keywords><keyword>disgust</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2009</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[3]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> suggests that
the disgust emotion began life as an extension of our in-built responses to
bitterness to which we added a cognitive appraisal of other (whether bitter or
not) substances that we did not want to consume. This allows us to learn what
to be disgusted by as a function of culture or violated expectations.
Similarly, strong violations of beliefs, values or rules have become ‘attached’
to disgust. While we might just be using disgust as a metaphor in such
situations, there is evidence that it is something more fundamental. Thus, in
the same way that the classic disgust facial expression shares common features
with facial expressions to unpalatably bitter foods, it can be shown that both
core disgust and the moral disgust at being treated unfairly in a game activate
a very similar set of facial muscles </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri;
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Chapman</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>6794</RecNum><DisplayText>[4]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>6794</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="1411433192">6794</key><key
app="ENWeb"
db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal
Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Chapman,
H.A.</author><author>Kim,
D.A.</author><author>Susskind,
J.M.</author><author>Anderson,
A.K.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>In
Bad Taste: Evidence for the Oral Origins of Moral
Disgust</title><secondary-title>Science</secondary-title><alt-title>Science</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Science</full-title><abbr-1>Science</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Science</full-title><abbr-1>Science</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>1222-1226</pages><volume>323</volume><keywords><keyword>disgust</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2009</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[4]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri;
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. So, at least the expression of
disgust appears to be highly similar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A later study looked at associations between bitterness sensitivity, reflected in PROP taster status
(May, 2013: <a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2013_05_01_archive.html">http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2013_05_01_archive.html</a>),
and different questionnaire scales of disgust sensitivity </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Herz</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>5641</RecNum><DisplayText>[5]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>5641</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt"
timestamp="1329694926">5641</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal
Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author><style
face="normal" font="default" size="12">Herz,
R.
S.</style></author></authors></contributors><titles><title><style
face="normal" font="default" size="12">PROP
Taste Sensitivity is Related to Visceral but Not Moral
Disgust</style></title><secondary-title><style
face="normal" font="default" size="12">Chem.
Percept.</style></secondary-title><alt-title><style
face="normal" font="default"
size="12">Chemosensory Perception</style></alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Chemosensory
Perception</full-title><abbr-1>Chemosens
Percept</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages><style
face="normal" font="default"
size="12">72-79</style></pages><volume><style
face="normal" font="default"
size="12">4</style></volume><keywords><keyword>PROP</keyword><keyword>disgust</keyword><keyword>bitter
perception</keyword></keywords><dates><year><style
face="normal" font="default"
size="12">2011</style></year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">[5]</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:13.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Calibri'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">. By
distinguishing between different types of disgust: visceral (related to
disease, bodily fluids and sexual activity) and moral, the study was able to
show that those most sensitive to the bitterness of PROP (supertasters) were also
significantly more sensitive to visceral disgust - that is, involving the
possibility of contamination through ingestion or otherwise - but not moral
disgust. It is possible therefore that the link between core disgust and moral
disgust is merely semantic or metaphorical. An alternative explanation,
however, is that (as suggested above) that across the two stages or jumps from
bitterness responses to core disgust to moral disgust, the link between taste
reactivity and moral disgust is weakened or lost.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In
either case, examining the origins of moral disgust provides further
opportunities to consider the possibility – raised in the previous two postings
– that the source of many of our more complex emotional or personality traits
can be found in quite fundamental early taste experiences.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -3.2pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 10;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: -3.2pt; margin-top: 3.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -3.2pt; margin-top: 3.0pt; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Calibri'><span style='mso-element:
field-begin'></span><span style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.REFLIST <span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">1.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Oaten, M.J., R.J. Stevenson, and
T.I. Case, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Disgust as a Disease-Avoidance
Mechanism.</i> PSYCHOL. BULL., 2009. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">135</b>(2):
p. 303-321.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -3.2pt; margin-top: 3.0pt; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">2.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Verbeke, W., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Profiling consumers who are ready to adopt insects as a meat substitute
in a Western society.</i> Food Qual Pref, 2015. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">39</b>: p. 147-155.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -3.2pt; margin-top: 3.0pt; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">3.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Rozin, P., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">From Oral to Moral.</i> Science, 2009. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">323</b>: p. 1179-1180.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -3.2pt; margin-top: 3.0pt; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">4.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Chapman, H.A., et al., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In Bad Taste: Evidence for the Oral Origins
of Moral Disgust.</i> Science, 2009. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">323</b>:
p. 1222-1226.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -3.2pt;">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>JA</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
<w:UseFELayout/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="276">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt;font-family:
Calibri;mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝";mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast;
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><!--EndFragment--></div>
<div class="EndNoteBibliography" style="margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: -3.2pt; margin-top: 3.0pt; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">5.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Herz, R.S., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">PROP Taste Sensitivity is Related to Visceral but Not Moral Disgust.</i>
Chem. Percept., 2011. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">4</b>: p. 72-79.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-61488921690809061882014-08-22T20:56:00.000+10:002014-08-22T22:40:42.157+10:00Fear of frying<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
In my last post (July, 2014: <a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.nl/2014_07_01_archive.html"><span style="color: #0433ff;"><i>A Taste of Emotion</i></span></a>), I suggested the possibility that responses to tastes were linked to other emotional responses not merely by association to some third, common factor, but rather that variations in taste responsiveness might be the <i>cause</i> of different degrees of disinhibition (defined as inability to delay gratification) or how much we react to emotion-inducing stimuli of all kinds. Speculation is fine but how do we establish that one thing has caused another? Proving causal links between any two phenomena is always difficult, but we can ask what sort of evidence might make us take an idle speculation more seriously, even in the absence of absolute proof.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
My own first question was whether we had any evidence that variation in taste preferences – apparently uniform at birth – emerges relatively early. If it does, then this can potentially be an influence on subsequent emotional development. This search sent me to the bowels of my dusty reprint archives (more strictly, the <i>Endnote</i><span style="font-size: 15px;"><sup>tm</sup></span> program on my computer). The answer is that there is such evidence, at least when we consider sweetness preferences.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
The strong preference for sweetness seen at birth starts to decline as the infant reaches the second half of their first year, such that some infants become relatively indifferent to sweetened water [1]. What does increase is variability in response to sweetness and a plausible hypothesis is that this is a consequence of differing exposures to a variety of foods, only some of which are sweet. And there is evidence for this. Infants fed sugar water prior to 6 months maintained a high preference for sweetness in water at 12 and 24 months. In effect, at 2 years of age, these infants were “sweet likers” (see: February, 2013:<i> </i><a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.nl/2013/02/how-sweet-it-is-or-is-it.html"><span style="color: #0433ff;"><i>How sweet it is …. Or is it?</i></span></a>). In contrast, those never fed sweet water did not show a strong desire to drink sweetened water over plain water [2]. Hence, one consequence of the practice of feeding infants sugar water is that is maintains the same high preference for sweetness that exists at birth into their second and third years.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
Secondly, is there any evidence that taste experiences are linked to other emotions? Again, some of the “side effects’ of sweet tastes suggests that there might be. We know, for example, that sweet tastes can pacify an infant when they are receiving a painful hospital procedure [3]. The mechanism is not exactly certain but is likely to involve the activation of reward/pleasure pathways that inhibit pain. The reason that some mothers administer sugar water is presumably to help pacify their distressed infant. Through such pairings, the infant will learn to associate demands with reward – perhaps a precursor of later inability to inhibit immediate gratification.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
But taste hedonics is not the only potential early influence on later emotions. One other obvious food-related candidate that may influence emotional development is food neophobia (FN). When seen in children, typically those aged 2 - 6 years, it is interpreted as an adaptive developmental stage that limits ingestion of unfamiliar, and therefore potentially dangerous, items that might be mistaken for food. It is thought to be mediated by the fear that unknown foods might taste unpleasant [4].</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
FN varies with a number of different factors (age and education, for example), and can be modified by experience with food variety. It also differs between cultures: in one study, consumers in New Zealand were shown to be on average more FN than a similar group from Japan. Dietary variety, or at least an attitude towards dietary variety, would seem to be the most logical reason for such differences. Nevertheless, FN is a strongly heritable trait [5] that persists into adulthood in substantial proportions of the population – up to 50% in some estimates. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 12px; margin-top: 6px;">
As in children, high FN adults have low dietary variety and show a reluctance to consider new foods – even if they are simply new versions of something already eaten. They also dislike larger numbers of foods than their low FN neighbours. For the high FN individual, therefore, eating is associated with either boredom with the limited horizons of their diet or anxiety at the prospect of encountering something unfamiliar (or perhaps both) – in either case, food generates a relatively low level of pleasure compared to that experienced by the rest of us.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
If basic tastes such as sweetness and bitterness elicit some of the very earliest post-partum emotions, then pleasure in our early years is clearly also heavily reliant on food. Rewards are often food based – the ice-cream or cake treat – and it is in these early years that children start to associate particular foods with other rewarding experiences, such as a trip to the well-known McDougalls Scottish burger ‘restaurant’ (Slogan: “It could be worse!”). Presumably for the highly FN child or adolescent, there is no such thing as being “pleasantly surprised” by food.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
But there are many things about the FN experience that are unknown. How does the development of preferences for new foods develop in high FN individuals? Do high FN diets exclude whole categories of foods? One example might be very spicy or bitter foods, the consumption of which requires tolerance for initially unpleasant qualities (remember that FN is mediated by a fear that something with taste unpleasant). Rozin has suggested that the single most important question that can be asked of someone if you wish to know their food preferences is “what is your culture or ethnic group?”. It may be the follow-up question ought to involve measuring FN.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
Strong evidence is lacking for an effect of FN beyond the food domain. However, more general personality traits such as <i>sensation seeking</i> are based on a broad enjoyment of novelty as well as “thrill seeking” in a variety of contexts. On another occasion, Rozin proposed that eating chilli might be a form of benign thrill seeking and so the question remains as to whether early failure to thrill seek with foods may predispose the individual to adopt similar approach when faced with novel experiences in general. </div>
<div style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 13px; min-height: 16px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12px;">
____________________________________________________________________<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.5px; text-decoration: underline;"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></div>
<div style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9.5px; min-height: 10px;">
<span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span><br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Schwartz, C., S. Issanchou, and S. Nicklaus, <i>Developmental changes in the acceptance of the five basic tastes in the first year of life.</i> Br J Nutr, 2009. <b>102</b>(9): p. 1375-85.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Beauchamp, G.K. and M. Moran, <i>Acceptance of sweet and salty tastes in 2-year old children.</i> Appetite, 1984. <b>5</b>: p. 291-305.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Blass, E.M. and L.B. Hoffmeyer, <i>Sucrose as an analgesic for newborn infants.</i> Pediatrics, 1991. <b>87</b>(2): p. 215-218.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
4.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Pliner, P., M. Pelchat, and M. Grabski, <i>Reduction of neophobia in humans by exposure to novel foods.</i> Appetite, 1993. <b>20</b>: p. 111-123.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
5.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Knaapila, A., et al., <i>Food neophobia shows heritable variation in humans.</i> Physiol. Behav., 2007. <b>91</b>: p. 573-578.</div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-33826215880987581632014-07-20T19:08:00.000+10:002014-07-20T19:24:24.963+10:00A taste of emotion<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
<span style="font-size: 14px;">I</span>f you study perception, you tend not to be particularly concerned with the “secondary” emotions that sensory experiences might evoke (for a fuller discussion of this, see: <a href="http://www.expo.rai.it/eng/2014/07/08/taste-neuro"><span style="color: #0433ff; font-size: 13px;">http://www.expo.rai.it/eng/2014/07/08/taste-neuroscience-prescott/</span></a>)<span style="font-size: 15px;">.</span> Except if you study taste, in which case you can hardly avoid it. Emotional responses to tastes are, we can say with a reasonable degree of certainty, built into the fabric of the taste experience. Jacob Steiner’s famous photographs of newborns smiling or grimacing in response to sucrose and quinine [1], respectively, are if not exactly proof of this, then nevertheless compelling. The adaptive argument, too, is simple: tastes evoke emotions because this activates motivations to consume (calories, salt) or avoid (toxins) and hence promote survival. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
Our everyday language provides us with some hints that taste may find links with our emotions more broadly. Thus, unpleasant emotional experiences will leave <i>a bitter taste in your mouth</i>; we say that we can <i>taste the fear</i>, and of course sweetness is synonymous with all sorts of pleasant emotions. The usual interpretation of such figures of speech is that we have co-opted tastes to help us describe emotions, perhaps because we tend to be poor at this.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
But increasingly this does not seem to be the whole picture. A recently published study by Herbert and colleagues [2] examined the way in which autonomic nervous system responses - eye-blinks and changes in pupil diameter in response to startling bursts of white noise - are modified by emotion-inducing pictures. Importantly, though, they compared these responses in tasters and non-tasters of the bitter compound 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP). This study was prompted by an earlier study in which PROP <span style="color: #2f2f2f;">supertasters showed more intense self-reported emotional responses (anger, tension, sadness and fear; decreased mood and joy) than non-tasters or medium tasters after an anger-inducing film clip.</span></div>
<div style="color: #2f2f2f; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
Herbert and colleagues found that startle responses were increased for pictures meant to elicit fear, anger, disgust, or pictures that were pleasant in content, relative to neutral pictures – but in the PROP-taster group only, and not the non-tasters. This suggests that the PROP tasters are hyper-responsive to both negative and positive emotions generally, not just to tastes.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
Why would broad emotional responsiveness be linked to the ability to taste a particular bitter compound? Certainly, facial expressions to bitterness – the familiar grimace, nose-wrinkle and gape – has previously been thought to be the basis of the classic disgust facial response and perhaps even the origin of this basic emotion itself. Indeed, <span style="color: #181a18;">PROP super-tasters has been shown to be more responsive to the visceral – but not moral – aspects of disgust than are (medium) tasters and non-tasters, with taste sensitivity being positively correlated with degree of disgust </span>[3].</div>
<div style="color: #181a18; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
But a common origin for disgust and bitterness dislike suggests something broader than the involvement of one particular bitter compound linked to a specific taste receptor (T2R38), one of perhaps 30 or more such bitter receptors. Two possibilities suggest themselves. The first is that responses to bitterness in general are reflective of an underlying overall emotional responsiveness, a relationship yet to be tested. In this sense, bitter substances are simply effective at eliciting emotions, in the same way as pictures of disgusting scenes or objects are effective. In addition, though, ratings of PROP intensity are often used as a proxy measure for taste responsiveness in general. PROP tasters also find sweet, salty sour and bitter tastes more intense than do PROP non-tasters (see for example, [4]). This is more than likely due to the fact that increased numbers of taste buds underlie overall taste responsiveness, including (at least for those not ‘blind’ to it), PROP bitterness.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
It has been hypothesized for some time that the pleasure given by sweetness is really no different than pleasure of any other sort, and that a common reward system in the brain underlies the popularity of sex, drugs and rock ‘n roll ….. and cake. But yet another broad link between taste and more general responsiveness to reward has been reported [5]. I have discussed the phenomenon of sweet liking and disliking previously (<span style="color: #1255cc;"><a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.nl/2013/02/how-sweet-it-is-or-is-it.html" target="_blank">How sweet it is ... or is it?</a></span>). The origins of this hedonic dimension are not well understood, but this study suggests that it may be linked to variations in overall disinhibition. Here, disinhibition was defined in terms of <i>delay discounting</i> – the idea of how much we value a given reward given now versus one that may be much larger, if we are willing to wait for it. So, if I say that I would rather have $10 now rather than $20 in a month, I am effectively discounting the later amount. In food terms, I can have one piece of chocolate now or three pieces in an hour. If you opt for the smaller reward now, you are unable to inhibit your need to satisfy your immediate desire. It turns out that such “discounters” are more likely to be sweet likers, that is, to prefer higher levels of sweetness. This then is another case of taste responses being seen in terms of more general responsiveness to reward.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
An obvious interpretation is that, as mentioned above, pleasant tastes are merely part of an overall reward system that has adaptive value. However, there is an intriguing alternative explanation of why tastes might be so tied into other aspects of emotional life. If we start with the premise that tastes are responsible for some of the earliest emotions that we experience, it becomes possible to think about these early experiences having a large impact in shaping our broader emotional landscape. So, in this scenario, the fact you respond more positively to sweetness than I do becomes a major factor in whether or not you delay discount, not just for chocolates but in general for all reward. Similarly, sensitivity to bitterness – present at birth – has such a strong emotional impact that it influences the way you subsequently respond to all emotional stimuli. As a corollary, individual <i>variations</i> in taste sensitivity or hedonic value becomes a primary determinant of variations in our emotional responsiveness generally. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
Admittedly, this is a “chicken/egg” argument that may be impossible to determine but ….. the chronological primacy of taste hedonics does mean that we ought to consider the possibility that the taste of fear is not a way of helping us describe emotions but rather a clue to where our emotions originate.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12px;">
____________________________________________________________________</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12px; min-height: 14px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Steiner, J.E., et al., <i>Comparative expression of hedonic impact: affective reactions to taste by human infants and other primates. .</i> Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 2001. <b>25</b>(1): p. 53-74.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Herbert, C., et al., <i>Supertaster, super reactive: Oral sensitivity for bitter taste modulates emotional approach and avoidance behavior in the affective startle paradigm.</i> Physiol Behav, 2014. <b>135C</b>: p. 198-207.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Herz, R.S., <i>PROP Taste Sensitivity is Related to Visceral but Not Moral Disgust.</i> Chem. Percept., 2011. <b>4</b>: p. 72-79.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
4.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Prescott, J., N. Ripandelli, and I. Wakeling, <i>Intensity of tastes in binary mixtures in PROP non-tasters, medium-tasters and super-tasters. .</i> Chem. Senses, 2001. <b>26</b>: p. 993-1003.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
5. Weafer, J., A. Burkhardt, and H. de Wit, <i>Sweet taste liking is associated with impulsive behaviors in humans.</i> Front Behav Neurosci, 2014. <b>8</b>: p. 228.</div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-55104932335896370362014-05-24T01:55:00.001+10:002014-05-24T01:56:10.709+10:00The subtext on context<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px;">
“What’s the weirdest food you have encountered?”. I suppose that’s a reasonable question if you write about food preferences – we all are fascinated by the unusual. And it is why I opened <i>Taste Matters</i> [1] with a description of <i>hakarl</i>, the (to me) repulsive Icelandic dish made from rotten shark meat. My more general answer, though, is usually disappointing: any food – including what you ate for lunch today – can be weird, depending on whom you ask. If rotten shark meat is a delicacy, who’s to say that roast chicken, or oysters, or flat bread topped with tomato, cheese, and tiny fish won’t seem like odd things to eat.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px;">
It is all about context. As food consumers, our focus is naturally on the foods that we eat. Are they tasty, healthy, interesting and so on? But if you shift focus from the food to consumers themselves, it becomes apparent that all responses to foods – likes, dislikes, strangeness - are relative …. to something. Even the question of whether a taste is strong or weak is only partly based in the food itself. Is your coffee very sweet? That’s merely a function of how much sugar you normally add to it – in other words, your memory of how sweet coffee should be. Is the dish too spicy? Probably not, if it is similar to what you normally eat. Your accumulated memories of what you have eaten, and in particular most recently eaten, provide an internal context against which a food or flavour can be said to be weak or strong, and hence pleasant or unpleasant.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px;">
Similarly, our past experiences with foods and the combinations of tastes, aromas, textures and colours that typically occur lead to expectations prior to eating. Violating these expectations can lead to a variety of outcomes, depending on the context. At a purely perceptual level, it is easy to demonstrate that a lime-flavoured drink will be identified most often as berry-flavoured if it is coloured red. On the other hand, a colourless drink will be judged as less intense in flavour. We tend to trust our eyes more than our ability to identify flavours. Such demonstrations can be a source of embarrassment when this is done with wine enthusiasts, who will talk at length about the cherry, blackberry and tobacco notes of a white wine to which red food colouring has been added. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px;">
Confounding expectations is not always a bad thing. A favourite traveller’s tale concerns the tiny restaurant found in a back alley of a small town off the beaten track in an exotic location. The seating was fruit crates, the waiter spoke only the local language, and the kitchen wasn’t large enough for two people. The food, however, was sensational and produced an enduring memory of a great meal experience. Of course, we can have great meal experiences at Michelin-starred restaurants in major cities, but it is the surprise element – the wonderful flavours <i>despite</i> the context – that provide both the additional pleasure, and a way of locking it into our memory. Moreover, our surprise meal transported to a different context – say, a plush restaurant with formal service – is far less likely to be memorable precisely because our expectations for fine food were met exactly. Consumer scientist Herb Meiselman showed some years ago that the pleasantness of the same meal would be judged quite differently served in different contexts such as a restaurant, a canteen or in a hospital setting [2].</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px;">
Part of the enjoyment of our exotic-location meal derives, of course, from the idea of authenticity. The food takes on an added pleasure if we feel that we are experiencing what the locals experience. This is such a common pursuit these days that authenticity – real or perceived - becomes a selling point and sometimes also a way of subtly pushing us towards particular food choices. What’s more appealing: long noodles with meat sauce or <i>tagliatelle a la Bolognese</i>? One is just a meal but the other is an <i>ethnic</i> meal (unless you are from Bologna, of course). And what would you rather drink with it? Even if you can afford to order a nice Burgundy, doesn’t the idea of the unknown local red wine – the owner’s selection – draw your interest just that much more? A great wine versus a wine <i>experience</i>.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px;">
The influence of a context doesn’t have to be subtle. Most people can convince themselves about the added appeal of a meal in a restaurant in which a few cultural stereotypes are on display over the same meal cooked at home or in a generic restaurant environment. Rude waiter – check. Brass fittings – check. Edith Piaf soundtrack – check. Yes, this is not a steak, chips and wilted lettuce leaf, it’s a genuine <i>steak frites</i>. Sophisticated and worldly diners might expect themselves to be immune from such obvious influences: their focus is on the food, the technique, the playful presentation. But the cues to context that set up expectations are not necessarily open to conscious inspection. One study, for example, examined the impact of playing French or German style background music on alternate days in the wine section of a supermarket [3]. Despite the fact that when questioned, consumers were unaware of the type of music being played, German and French wines were more often purchased on days when German and French music, respectively, was played. The researchers’ quite plausible explanation is that the music activated other, unconscious, nationality-based associations that nudged the consumers towards the purchase of a wine that was congruent – that is, a good fit – with those associations.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px;">
This idea helps explain too how wonderful food or wine in one context totally fails to impress when removed to a different context. Sitting in the sun, watching the ocean, a piece of grilled fish on the plate and a glass of local wine in hand seems a perfect combination. Remove the sun, ocean and carefree thoughts, however, and the same wine seems like a very odd purchase to have brought home from holidays. These important contextual cues are now being explicitly utilized by some chefs who have recognized that eating is a multisensory experience, the pleasure of which is enhanced by an environment that stimulates our senses and activates memories of past experiences. A well-known example of this is apparent in a dish entitled “The Sounds of the Sea”, created by British chef Heston Blumenthal [4]. The diner listens to the sound of waves on the shore (via an iPod hidden in a conch shell) to accentuate the visual presentation of seafood on a tapioca-based ‘sandy beach’, with a vegetable and seafood based foam as the rolling waves. The result is a multisensory immersion in sights, sounds, odours, textures and tastes with contributions from memories and emotions that evoke warm feelings of nostalgia for days on the seashore. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px;">
An ethnic theme in a restaurant may influence our food selection and enjoyment, but our actual culture is really the key context through which food preferences are formed and foods are interpreted. Around 30 years ago, food psychologist Paul Rozin and his wife, food writer Elizabeth Rozin, formulated the idea of culturally-based flavour principles by asking two important questions [5]. The first of these was whether each culture’s cuisine could be defined in a list of key ingredients and cooking styles that distinguished it from all other cuisines. Essentially, what they wanted to know was what made Italian food <i>Italian</i> or Greek food <i>Greek</i> and, for example, if we ate a chicken dish each from Italy, Spain and Greece, what would be the essential features that would allow us to know their origins. After all, each of these cuisines uses olive oil, garlic and tomato in their cooking, so they are in many ways similar. But we can still see differences between them in the use of different herbs and spices such as oregano, basil, rosemary, chilli, paprika, saffron, thyme, parsley, fennel and so on. Even when there is overlap in the types of spices used, there will be different combinations and emphases in the cultures for different dishes. Of course, when cultures are geographically more remote, or the history of influences is dramatically different, the differences in flavour principles become more obvious. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px; min-height: 18px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px;">
Secondly, the Rozins asked whether flavour principles might have some purpose, other than being merely a matter of convenience is using whatever ingredients were locally available. They proposed that flavour principles actually performed a vital, biologically important function (apart from making chicken more interesting to eat). They recognized that all of us tend to be rather wary of incorporating new foods into our diet – the scientific term is <i>food neophobia</i> – an evolutionary hangover from our time in the wild where new plants could as often be poisonous as nutritious. But given that even in more modern times, the environment is not always friendly to food sources, and it pays to be flexible and be able to incorporate new sources of proteins and plant foods in the diet. Cooking in a familiar way, with familiar ingredients, converts a potential source of neophobia into a recognizable dish that is more likely to be accepted than rejected as unfamiliar.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px;">
The members of each culture learn that the flavour is the acceptable context for the various ingredients that provide sources of protein – whether it be chicken, fish, insects, rotten shark, tripe – and other nutrients. And this learning takes place even before we are born. Research over the past two decades has shown that flavours are passed from a mother’s diet into the amniotic fluid surrounding a foetus. Importantly, this provides exposure to, and hence familiarity with, these flavours that can be seen in the preferences of the baby at the time of weaning. Foetal exposure to the flavour of a vegetable such as carrot will mean that carrot flavour is more readily accepted even when the infant is 2 years old. Of course, what the mother is doing is inadvertently passing of culturally-based food knowledge: the flavour principles of the mother’s diet become those of the infant. The culture of food thus is transmitted from generation to generation - but how such transmission will survive globalization of foods is unclear.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px;">
_____________________________________________________________</div>
<br />
<ol>
<li style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin: 6px 0px;">Prescott, J., <i>Taste Matters. Why we like the foods we do.</i> 2012, London: Reaktion Books.</li>
<li style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin: 6px 0px;">Edwards, J.S., et al., <i>The influence of eating location on the acceptability of identically prepared foods.</i> Food Qual Pref, 2003. <b>14</b>: p. 647-652.</li>
<li style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin: 6px 0px;">North, A.C., D.J. Hargreaves, and J. McKendrick, <i>The influence of in-store music on wine selections.</i> J Appl Psychol., 1999. <b>84</b>(2): p. 271-276.</li>
<li style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin: 6px 0px;">Blumenthal, H., <i>The Big Fat Duck Cookbook </i>2008, London: Bloomsbury.</li>
<li style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin: 6px 0px;">Rozin, E. and P. Rozin, <i>Culinary themes and variations.</i> Nat. Hist., 1981. <b>90</b>(2): p. 6-14.</li>
</ol>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-57602737512070327142014-03-20T04:14:00.002+11:002014-03-20T04:14:28.725+11:00Nose-ology of smelling<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px;">
Just how important is our sense of smell? None of us wants to lose any of our senses, but ranking them in order of importance will for many people put smell into the lower half of the list. This is certainly reflected, for example, in compensation payouts where the lost of an eye, or partial deafness, is weighed far more heavily than total smell loss. Such figures are worked out in a world in which survival no longer depends on sniffing out our daily meal. But I wonder if, in the developed world at least, old ideas about the importance of smell have not kept pace with our recent obsessions – both nutrition and flavor related – with food.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px; min-height: 22px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px;">
It has been obvious for some time that the key to flavour characteristics is a food’s aromas. The OED, for example, notes that the word flavour in English, thought to date from the late 14<sup>th</sup>/early 15<sup>th</sup> century, originally referred only to a fragrance or aroma. A figure of 80% is often quoted as the contribution that odours make to food flavours. This is not based on actual data, but is rather an attempt to convey smell’s importance. Less quantitative, but more to the point, is the fact that with our sense of taste alone we are generally unable to identify foods and beverages – as we often witness when the sense of smell is disabled by nasal congestion. From the point of view of flavour, a food without an odour is no more than a nutritional supplement.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px; min-height: 22px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px;">
Knowing this, you might think then that our sense of taste is the one to loose (if we had a choice) and wanted to continue to enjoy food. It is fortunate, however, that total taste loss is relatively rare since when it occurs its effects are reported to be at least as, if not more, devastating to food enjoyment as is smell loss. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px; min-height: 22px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px;">
In contrast, major smell loss is relatively common and is associated with a wide variety of social and health problems, including loss of enjoyment of food leading to altered eating patterns, depression, and increased concerns about hygiene and household safety. Interestingly, while the acquisition of a sensory loss of any type might be expected to produce such effects, it has been reported that individuals who have never had a sense of smell also report many of these problems [1]. Compared to healthy controls, a group of such <i>congenital anosmics</i> reported more household accidents, increased concerns about social interactions, and higher depression scores. Their eating behavior was, however, similar to that of the <i>normosmic</i> controls. This suggests that dietary changes following smell loss are primarily due to a lack of interest in foods as a result of their <i>sudden</i> ‘tastelessness’ or attempts to overcome this problem by, for example, boosting flavor using salt or sugar or other detectible qualities.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px; min-height: 22px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px;">
Smell loss is also common as we age, although it appears that this often goes unnoticed because of its gradual onset, while eating patterns are preserved due to habit. In fact, suddenly acquired total smell loss does not always produce a dramatic impact on food choices. As with aging, this may reflect the preeminent role of habit in the diet of some individuals. However, first hand reports of those suffering anosmia acquired as a result of head injury or nasal disease include examples of individuals who say that they can recall food flavours and essentially “fill in the gaps” left by the lack of food odour.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px; min-height: 22px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px;">
The ability to generate such olfactory imagery has been somewhat contentious, but there is now good evidence that some people can generate mental images of odours, even if they tend to be more fleeting and weaker than visual images. So-called good olfactory imagers – based on self-report – actually sniff when imaging odours, and their sniffs are larger (more air inhaled) when imaging good than bad odours, exactly what is found with sniffs in response to a physically present odour [2]. Imagined odours have recently been reported to enhance the ability of a food picture to induce salivation, and to influence the actual amount consumed of a palatable food [3]<span style="color: red;">*</span>. An earlier study found that imagined odours enhanced a physically present congruent taste in the same way an actual odour would [4].</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px; min-height: 22px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px;">
So, olfactory imagery can have tangible effects and this is important since olfactory cues are very powerful engagers of food wanting and craving. Variations in being able to image a food flavor may therefore be crucial to understanding why some individuals succumb to food-related cues by overeating. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px; min-height: 22px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px;">
In addition, though, why only some people are able to generate olfactory images and indeed why it is possible to use these to compensate for actual smell loss highlights how surprisingly little we still know about the nature of the information about smell that we store in memory. We know that odour memories seem to be more emotionally laden than other sensory memories. They are also poorly linked to language – no one has the same difficulty identifying a melon by sight as they do in naming it based only on its odour. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px; min-height: 22px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px;">
In a recently published theoretical review, Koster and colleagues [5] propose a model of the sense of smell that attempts to account for the apparently odd ways that smells are encoded. These authors point to the fact that, generally, we are mostly unaware of the odours around us – indeed, for most of us, most of the time, our environment is odourless. After a brief period of perception, even novel odours recede out of consciousness due to adaptation. However, this does not mean that that the odour is not encoded. Koster and co argue that odours are ignored without consequence because the encoding is implicit – odours link to events and places incidentally, without conscious effort. The meaning of the odour is supplied by the context in which it was originally experienced. They argue, too, that not only is there no point in asking questions about our ability to identify odours, but that attaching a name to an odour necessarily weakens the link between the odour and its initial context. It is only when an odour is experienced in an unusual context or when expectations about odours are violated do we need to conscious pay attention to them since this may signal something potentially important to survival.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px; min-height: 22px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px;">
All this may seem odd: that our sense of smell is more about ignoring odours than paying attention to them. However, as Koster <i>et al</i>. note, sensory signals are meant to tell us something important about the world. Information that indicates only that the status quo is in place tells us nothing, while attempting to consciously take in and process such information would be overwhelming. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px;">
Surely though this doesn’t apply to food? We think about food enjoyment in terms of attending to the myriad odours and flavours that make up our diet. But, do we actually do this? A meal at a gastronomy temple may encourage a focus on individual flavours and odours, but did you really pay attention at breakfast today? And exactly what was the quality of peas-ness of your peas last night? On the other hand, if there was an odd flavour lurking in your greens, you can be assured that this will register and possibly help you avoid consuming something nasty.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 18px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px;">
<span style="color: red;">*</span> This article is notable for one other thing: introducing the worst neologism in recent memory ….. <i>smellizing</i>.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
_________________________________________________________________</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Croy, I., et al., <i>Learning about the functions of the olfactory system from people without a sense of smell.</i> PLoS One, 2012. <b>7</b>(3): p. e33365.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Bensafi, M., S. Pouliot, and N. Sobel, <i>Odorant-specific patterns of sniffing during imagery distingusih 'bad' and 'good' olfactory imagers.</i> Chem. Senses, 2005. <b>30</b>: p. 521-529.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Krishna, A., M. Morrin, and E. Sayin, <i>Smellizing Cookies and Salivating: A Focus on Olfactory Imagery.</i> J. Cons. Res., 2014. <b>40</b>: p. DOI: 10.1086/674664.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
4.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Djordjevic, J., R.J. Zatorre, and M. Jones-Gotman, <i>Effects of Perceived and Imagined Odors on Taste Detection.</i> Chem. Senses, 2004. <b>29</b>: p. 199-208.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
5.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Koster, E.P., P. Moller, and J. Mojet, <i>A "Misfit" Theory of Spontaneous Conscious Odor Perception (MITSCOP): reflections on the role and function of odor memory in everyday life.</i> Front Psychol, 2014. <b>5</b>: p. 1-12.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-50760829211202703962014-02-20T13:15:00.000+11:002014-02-20T13:15:08.569+11:00Unaware eating<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>JA</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
<w:UseFELayout/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="276">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="font-size: large;">When was your last memorable meal: last
anniversary, birthday, or other special occasion? What about dinner last night
at home? While you may actually be able to remember what you ate last night,
the details about quantities and how much time you spent eating are likely to
be sketchy at best. To a large extent, this is due to the fact that we seldom
pay much attention to eating, except perhaps when in a special restaurant, when
awareness is part of both the enjoyment and our motivation to maintain a vivid
picture of where all that money went. The term “mindless eating” is often used
to convey the way in which we consume foods without monitoring the amounts, and
has been linked to overconsumption of snack foods and, of course, obesity.</span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;">Going back a century or so, Ivan Pavlov was
inducing his canine “research participants” to salivate in response to sounds
that they had learnt meant that the evening meal was probably on the way. He
termed these responses “psychic secretions” to indicate the role of a mental – that
is, psychological – process linking the new signal (the sound) to the original
stimulus for salivation (the food), rather than an automatic, in-built reflex.
At least in humans, it is generally considered that a such learned connections
must be conscious – we are not going to salivate to the sound of a bell unless
we </span><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="font-size: large;"><u>know</u></span></span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;"> that it signals dinner. However,
awareness is not an “all or none” phenomenon and it is often the case that, once
learning has taken place, we do not pay attention to those cues that induce a
desire to eat or that influence what we want to eat or how much we eat.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;">Two adjacent papers in a recent issue of the
journal <i>Appetite</i> show, in quite
different ways, how eating can come under the control of cues outside of our
immediate awareness. Feel like you are a free agent in your food choices? That
you make these choices according to your appetites, or values, or needs? Gaillet-Torrent
and colleagues </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;">[1]</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;"> show that pre-exposure to an ambient pear
odour induced their participants to more frequently select a fruit-based
dessert for their lunch than those who were not exposed to this odour. These
researchers argue that the pear odour ‘primed’ a later food choice that was
consistent with the odour quality, namely fruit. Consistent with this, there
was no impact of the odour on other, non-fruity lunch courses.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;">Is this a surprise? After all, the smell of chicken
roasting obviously influences our desire to consume that chicken rather than,
say, a tuna salad. However, the key here is awareness. The odour exposed group
showed no indication on questioning that they were consciously aware of the pear
odour that had been present in the room in which they waited for the experiment
to commence. And the effect was not merely a slight bias towards the fruit
dessert. The control group, not exposed to any odour and hence able to provide a
measure of the relative attractiveness of the fruit dessert, choose the
alternative dessert – a brownie – by a margin of 3 to 1. So the priming odour
not only pushed choice towards one dessert but substantially away from one that
might have been chosen otherwise.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;">A tendency to overeat while paying attention to
television is well-known as a prototypical example of mindless eating. But it has
not been clear why this occurs. Does an engaging TV program simply distract us
from actively monitoring what we eat? Lucy </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;">Braude and
Dick Stevenson </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;">[2]</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;"> studied
this </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;">phenomenon, asking
whether the increased intake was a function of TV interfering with either (or
both) the hedonic changes that occur during eating (a decline in liking known
as <i>sensory-specific satiety</i>) or the
ability to pay attention to our internal cues signaling reduction of hunger or
increasing fullness.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;">The study asked participants to consume either a
single snack food or a variety of different snack foods while either watching
TV or not. Replicating the already established findings that both watching TV
and food variety produced increased energy intake, this study also showed that
liking decreased for the food or foods eaten – the effect of sensory-specific
satiety (SSS). However, the most interesting aspect of the results was that
while, as expected, eating a single food results in a decrease in liking for
that food, this decrease only occurred in the no TV condition. In other words,
watching TV eliminated the SSS that we would expect to occur. Eating a variety
of snack foods, which produces less SSS in any case, was, in contrast,
unaffected by TV watching.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large;">While hunger and fullness ratings did not change
due to watching TV, intake (as mentioned above) did. Essentially, this means
that greater amounts of snack food were consumed while watching TV to produce
the same ratings of fullness and hunger as those who did not watch TV. Both
this finding and the effect of TV on SSS are interpreted by these authors as
reflecting a disruption of our largely automatic monitoring of both sensory
pleasure and cues for hunger. Thus, those bits of the mind that watch what we
eat are largely absent: true mindless eating.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">Both of these studies shed light
on the hidden influences that shape what we eat. Overconsumption is a major
concern among many populations and the failure of weight-loss diets to work in
the long term is well established. It is recognized that part of the problem is
that we are constantly exposed to cues (odours, sights, and even sounds) that
signal foods and drinks, especially those high in fat or sugar, making it
difficult to resist the associated conditioned impulses to eat </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">[3]</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="font-size: large;">. Demonstrating that substantial
influence over what and how much we consume can be exerted by cues that evade
awareness only emphasizes how difficult the process of exerting control over
food intake can be. Conversely, of course, active attention to eating ought to
be a means of regaining control. The problem is that lifestyles in many
affluent countries work against this. It is no coincidence, I think, that my
colleagues in France, where for an affluent country there is relatively low
levels of obesity, sit down to eat a substantial meal twice a day (see: <a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.nl/2012/12/le-topic-du-jour-gout-qui-importe.html">http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.nl/2012/12/le-topic-du-jour-gout-qui-importe.html</a>).
For them, snacking on the run or while watching TV has been relatively rare.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span lang="EN-US"> <o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></u></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1. Gaillet-Torrent,
M., et al., <i>Impact of a non-attentively
perceived odour on subsequent food choices.</i> Appetite, 2014. 76: p. 17-22.</span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<div style="text-indent: 0px;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36pt;">2. Braude, L. and R.J. Stevenson, </span><i style="text-indent: -36pt;">Watching television while eating increases
energy intake. Examining the mechanisms in female participants.</i><span style="text-indent: -36pt;"> Appetite,
2014. </span><span style="text-indent: -36pt;">76</span><span style="text-indent: -36pt;">: p. 9-16.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-indent: 0px;">
<span style="text-indent: -36pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="text-indent: 0px;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36pt;">3. Ferriday, D. and J.M. Brunstrom, </span><i style="text-indent: -36pt;">How does food-cue exposure lead to larger
meal sizes?</i><span style="text-indent: -36pt;"> Brit. J. Nutr., 2008. </span><span style="text-indent: -36pt;">100</span><span style="text-indent: -36pt;">:
p. 1325-1332.</span></span></div>
<br />
<!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:
Calibri;mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝";mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast;
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><!--EndFragment--><div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-6457845295102564942014-01-21T23:28:00.000+11:002014-01-21T23:28:28.322+11:00Nothing to be sniffed at<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
In our earliest months of life, we explore the world not just with our hands but also our mouths. This drops off a little as we grow older and realize that this is a fast way to ingesting things we perhaps shouldn’t. But it is easy to forget the mouth is a key source of actively seeking tactile information just as much as it is taste and – indirectly – smell (flavour) information. Similarly, we seldom consider our own noses as organs of exploration even if we are aware that some other mammals, dogs and rats for example, are highly active sniffers of their environments. To some extent, our ignorance of the importance of human sniffing is changing in the face of such studies as the relatively recent first demonstration that humans, like dogs, can track a scent in an open-air environment [1]. Other research from this same group (see: <a href="http://www.weizmann.ac.il/neurobiology/worg/"><span style="color: #0433ff; font-size: 16px;">http://www.weizmann.ac.il/neurobiology/worg/</span></a>) has also shed light on the importance of sniffing overall to our sense of smell.</div>
<div style="color: #181818; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
The act of odour localization and identification by sniffing is far more complex than simply pulling air up the nostrils and hoping for the best. The so-called olfactory-motor system functions in many ways just like the visual system. In both cases, the brain uses, and compensates for, head movements in locating an object. There is perceptual constancy too. A moving object does not appear to be bigger as it approaches even though the image size increases on the retina. Similarly, a bigger sniff sends more odour molecules to the receptors, but the odour does not smell stronger [2] as the brain takes the increased sniffing effort into account. There’s even a rough analog of binocular vision in the fact the airflow between the nostrils is always unequal, with each nostril being slightly more receptive to the absorption of certain odourants rather than others. Thus, the nostril each send a qualitatively different picture to the brain [3]. All of this is accompanied by typical search behaviours, in which humans dip in an out of odour “plumes” that travel through the air that we breathe.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
Understanding these processes is important because active sniffing is an integral part of maintaining health, even if this is sometimes unacknowledged. Merely letting aromas waft into our noses unaided is – for most of us – not particularly useful in finding out if the milk is off, the gas is on, a fire is burning, or if that odd scent in the air is actually a dead rat under the kitchen floorboards. Active sniffing guides us towards things that require action and away from things best not ingested. Sniffing also ensures that we choose the right product across a vast range of consumer goods, from fruit to shampoo to cleaning products. And when we sniff the wine that a waiter has just poured, we are trying to locate <i>parts per trillion</i> levels of the cork taint, <i>trichloranisole</i>.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #181a18; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
<span style="color: black;">Sniffing can also reflect preferences. A recent paper from </span>Shiori Nakano & Saho Ayabe-Kanamura of the University of Tsukuba in Japan showed that, at least when samples were from different categories, the most preferred odour of a group of consumer products (including foods, essential oils, soaps) elicited the longest initial sniff [4]. Interestingly, total sniffing time (participants could spend as much time as they liked sniffing each odour) did not differ between these odours. This combination of findings recalls a much earlier study showing that the first sniff is the deepest when trying to identify odours – all the remaining sniffing is about confirmation of the initial identification [5]. This finding is also consistent with an earlier study from my lab showing that pleasant odours of any type (food/non-food) elicited longer sniffing [6].<span style="color: #181818;"> Indeed, even when we are simply imagining odour, we tend to sniff, and even then pleasant odors produce higher sniff volumes [7].</span> </div>
<div style="color: #181a18; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #181a18; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
At first glance, such results look like they have potential for developing into a new behavioural – that is, non-verbal – measure of preferences. This is particularly so since sniffs can also reflect dislikes in that we inhibit sniffing if an odour is unpleasant. How unpleasant an odour has to be before sniff inhibition occurs, or the extent to which the speed of inhibition might reflect degree of unpleasantness is currently uncertain. Even so, could we measure liking in terms of sniff duration – product A gets 0.9 sec, but product B only scores a 0.65? The answer appears to be: not yet. The Japanese group’s paper reported that the discrimination between products due to sniffing was not evident when the products were from the same category (teas) and hence perceptually much more similar. The development of a more fine-grained sniffing measure might address some of the obstacles to a practical measure.</div>
<div style="color: #181a18; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #181818; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
<span style="color: #181a18;">There are other important indices apart from preferences that might influence sniffing. In our study, </span><span style="color: black;">s</span>niffs were significantly longer and stronger when our participants were<span style="color: black;"> </span>hungry, and this was true even when the odours were not related to foods or when there was no odour (a water blank). Although this is counter-intuitive, it makes sense if we think of sniffing as part of an exploration or search for food, which finishes once we have identified things to eat. Sniffing in this context reflects a motivation to search for, and identify, something good to eat. </div>
<div style="color: #181818; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px; min-height: 21px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #181818; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17px;">
The motivational aspect of eating – commonly referred to as <i>wanting</i>, in contrast to <i>liking</i> (see October, 2012: <span style="color: #0433ff; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: underline;">http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.nl/2012/10/learning-to-want.html</span>) – may in fact be a better predictor of what will be consumed when faced with different food types. Hence, an automatic (these responses occur in fractions of a second) and “objective” measure of wanting may develop into an excellent predictor of food choices. As with sniffing as a reflection of liking, the measure requires further development before similar products could be successfully compared. One thing such a measure would not do is eliminate the individual variability associated with other measures or liking or wanting such as rating scales. Adults with high levels of neophobia, for example, show much less vigorous sniffing to food odours, reflecting the wariness with which they approach foods generally [8].</div>
<div style="color: #181818; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11px; min-height: 13px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px;">
_____________________________________________________________________</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Porter, J., et al., <i>Mechanisms of scent-tracking in humans.</i> Nature Neurosci., 2007. <b>10</b>(1): p. 27-29.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Teghtsoonian, R., et al., <i>Invariance of odor strength and sniff vigor: An olfactory analogue to size constancy.</i> J. Exp. Psychol.: Hum. Percept. Perform., 1978. <b>4</b>(1): p. 144-152.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Sobel, N., et al., <i>The world smells different to each nostril.</i> Nature, 1999. <b>402</b>(35).</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
4.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Nakano, S. and S. Ayabe-Kanamura, <i>Smell Behavior During Odor Preference Decision.</i> Chem. Percept., 2013. <b>6</b>: p. 140-147.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
5.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Laing, D.G., <i>Identification of single dissimilar odors is achived by humans with a single sniff.</i> Physiol. Behav., 1986. <b>37</b>: p. 163-170.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
6.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Prescott, J., J. Burns, and R.A. Frank, <i>Influence of odor hedonics, food-relatedness and motivational state on human sniffing.</i> Chemosens. Percept., 2010. <b>3</b>(2): p. 85-90.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
7.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Bensafi, M., et al., <i>Olfactormotor activity during imagery mimics that during perception.</i> Nature Neurosci., 2003. <b>6</b>: p. 1142-1144.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
8. Raudenbush, B., et al., <i>Food neophobia, odor evaluation and exploratory sniffing behavior.</i> Appetite, 1998. <b>31</b>: p. 171-183.</div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-13105502394497924832013-11-28T21:18:00.001+11:002013-12-05T20:51:00.184+11:00Colour me .... minty<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
A recent article in the UK’s <i>The Guardian</i> newspaper (<span style="color: #323333;">Friday, 25 October 2013; </span><a href="http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/video/2013/oct/25/weirdest-tasting-crisp-ever-video" style="font-size: 13px;"><span style="color: #0433ff;">http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/video/2013/oct/25/weirdest-tasting-crisp-ever-video</span></a><span style="color: #323333;">) was a potent</span> reminder of the power of expectations in determining food likes and dislikes. The paper sent a camera crew armed with samples of a new flavour of <i>Pringles</i> potato crisps to observe the reactions of the public in a “taste test”. The facial expressions shown in response to the new flavour are unambiguous, and almost all highly negative<span style="font-size: 13px;">.</span> Why? Well, it wasn’t that the flavor itself was vile – no earwax or stale fish – but merely an unexpected …. mint chocolate! One participant, close to disgust, even commented that this was his favourite flavour, but just not in a potato crisp.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
This demonstration reflects very well how expectations are set up by past experiences, in particular, experiences with combinations of sensory properties. This includes not just tastes, odours and textures, but especially those qualities – visual cues such as shape and colour – that set up a <i>template</i> of what something is about to taste like. In the case of potato crisps, this might include flavours such as salty potato (ie., plain), “chicken”, vinegar or even more exotic combinations such as lime and pepper or chilli - savoury flavours all. But what induces the extreme reactions to what is, after all, a crispy, choc-mint treat? One possible explanation lies in considering that the predictability of a food’s flavour, based on external, visual cues (at least for visually-dominated species like us and the birds) is an important key to survival in the wild. In this sense, violations of expectations are a warning signal and like many warning signals involving food, they are underpinned by an unacceptable taste experience that is likely to inhibit eating.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
This is a cognitive component to our taste experience. And it essentially means that any combination of colours, odours, textures, tastes can be acceptable if together they are consistent with one another. For this reason, for example, we can accept white wines that smell like cat’s pee or cut grass or caramel or petrol.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
Clearly a food’s colour provides us with the key information we need to make a decision about whether to sample further by smelling or tasting. Green bananas, yellow lettuce, and grey meat tend to be diverted before they get close to the mouth. But the next <i>payage</i> on this alimentary motorway is our sense of smell which, at least when we are sniffing, can provide us with information about food at a distance, just as our vision does. This means not only that our senses of smell and vision are used to confirm the information provided by each other, but that particular qualities in each sense (odours; colours) become associated with one another. Hence, repeated pairings of specific qualities in each sense becomes over time a joint signal for the presence of something that can be eaten. Such learned congruency (<i>belongingness</i>) of different sensory signals has a parallel in the way in which specific tastes and odours combine as familiar food flavours and producing, as a results of this integration, odours that smell like tastes [1].</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
How colour combines with other food sensory signals perceptually or cognitively has been uncertain, although colour effects have received increased scrutiny recently (see for example, [2]). Does colour ‘merely’ act to set up expectations, or should we consider food/beverage colours as an integral aspect of the overall flavour? A just published review [3] by Debra Zellner (Montclair State University, USA) provides an overview, and explanatory model, of colour-odour interactions. Zellner draws together the various findings on odor discrimination and intensity, as well as odour pleasantness, and argues for perceptual – as opposed to response bias – effects of colour on odour in each case. In essence, she is saying that colour can influence odour in much the same way as odours can enhance taste intensity, and for the same associative learning reasons.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
Zellner leaves open the possibility of innate (unlearned) responses to odour-colour combinations, but this seems unlikely. Perceptual learning is a flexible process precisely because environmental conditions may dictate the combinations that could signal something edible. Hence, appropriate colour/odour combinations for foods would be expected to vary cross-culturally, and this has been shown in a recent study involving varying drink flavour and colours [4]. One could imagine, however, that colour intensity and odour strength might be intrinsically linked, but this may be an example only of our more general ability to equate intensities across different sensory modalities.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
One reason that there has been little consensus on how colour might influence odour perception is because of apparent inconsistencies in these interactions. Thus, while there is evidence that colour can enhance <i>sniffed</i> odour intensity, there are also findings that the intensity of ‘tasted’ odours – flavours – are suppressed by the presence of colour. On the face of it, this seems a bizarre finding. How could an unperceived quality (the colour in the mouth) produce any effect at all on the flavour? To account for this, Zellner invokes the idea of <span style="color: #181a18;">a contrast between the sniffed and the tasted odour. So, if the odour/colour combination is first experienced by sniffing/seeing, then an enhanced odour intensity is produced. However, once the odour source is in the mouth, then there is no further input from the colour, and the intensity is a function of the odour only. The suppression is thus relative, a comparison of the odour enhanced by colour and the same odour with the enhancement suddenly removed once the odour source is in the mouth.</span></div>
<div style="color: #181a18; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #181a18; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
In the light of the Pringles demonstration, it is not surprising that when colour and odour do not match, then the odour/flavour tends to be judged less favourably. An expected combination is also a familiar one that carries with it an implicit recognition that previous experiences are associated with a positive outcome. As with odour/taste combinations, repeated exposure not only produces an integrated perception of a flavour but also has hedonic consequences. Even if an odour/taste combination is not initially liked, the effects of exposure, and the positive effects of the nutrients in the food, produces a liked flavour over repeated pairings. </div>
<div style="color: #181a18; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; min-height: 17px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px;">
</div>
<div style="color: #181a18; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px;">
Intriguingly, colour/odour pairings might also generate an influence in the opposite direction – that is, odours might conceivably enhance colours. While if shown to be the case, this would no doubt have some food applications, those applications that immediately spring to mind relate to effects that could be produced environmentally or artistically. Perhaps, too, this could provide a perfect opportunity for aromatherapists and colour therapists to combine their ‘talents’, hopefully saving their poor consumers some money.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13px; text-align: left;">
_____________________________________________________________________</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; min-height: 15px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Prescott, J., <i>Multimodal chemosensory interactions and perception of flavor</i>, in <i>Frontiers in the Neural Bases of Multisensory Processes</i>. 2012, CRC Press. p. 691-704.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Dematte, M.L., D. Sanabria, and C. Spence, <i>Cross-modal associations between odors and colors.</i> Chem. Senses, 2006. <b>31</b>: p. 531-538.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Zellner, D.A., <i>Color–Odor Interactions: A Review and Model.</i> Chemosensory Perception, 2013. <b>6</b>(4): p. 155-169.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
4. Shankar, M.U., C.A. Levitan, and C. Spence, <i>Grape expectations: the role of cognitive influences in color-flavor interactions.</i> Conscious Cogn, 2010. <b>19</b>(1): p. 380-90.</div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-1940558466027509422013-10-11T02:35:00.000+11:002013-10-11T02:35:03.330+11:00Feeling all emotional<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
Leaving aside issues of nutrition, we usually judge a food by how much we like its flavour. But what is ‘like’? Ask a social psychologist and, after prolonged qualifications, they will probably tell you that ‘like’ is an attitude or a positive disposition towards something. So, if you wish to compare two foods in terms of liking or acceptability or preference, then degrees of positive disposition are what we are after. This doesn't sound very much like pure pleasure of the type that food can produce and yet ratings of liking are what are used by food companies to discover how consumers respond to foods and even to make decisions about whether or not a particular product should be launched into the marketplace.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
Ratings of liking are thus a proxy for an emotion – <i>pleasure</i> – and for a behavior, food choice. This would be fine if we could be sure that ‘liking’ was a <i>good</i> proxy for either, but there is little evidence that this is the case. Here’s the problem. There is a substantial body of research and practical experience showing that liking ratings fail to predict later food choices. Very many reasons can be found to explain this, including the fact that rated samples are not representative of meals, that liking varies as a function of many variables – time of day, mood, and so on, and that choice is influenced by other variables apart from liking.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
A relatively recent approach to this problem has been to ask if we are measuring the right thing. Are positive dispositions the sort of thing that are likely to reveal the next big product? I have posted previously about <i><a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.it/2011_11_01_archive.html" target="_blank">comfort</a></i> and <i><a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.it/2012_10_01_archive.html" target="_blank">wanting</a></i>. We recognize that a search for comfort is a particular feeling that will direct us towards specific types of foods, at least some of the time. Wanting, too, is a strong motivator that might underlie actual choices, irrespective of degree of liking. Of course, there are a multitude of emotions that we could measure, some of them perhaps quite important to us. Clinical psychologists and psychiatrists have been using standardized measures of emotion for some time, but the emphasis is unsurprisingly on negative emotions that are unlikely to be elicited by eating in most of us. </div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
Compiling lists of independent emotional terms that might be more related to foods can of course be done and there are examples in the recent literature (see for example [<a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_1%22%20%5Co%20%22Cardello,%202012%20#6420%22">1</a>]). There is certainly evidence that rated emotions do discriminate between products, and perhaps in some cases better than liking ratings [<a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_2%22%20%5Co%20%22Ng,%202013%20#6435%22">2</a>]. But the issues to be addressed are many. Thus, how do we know that a food-elicited emotion is not mediated by the pleasure given by the food (as reflected by ‘liking’) rather than being a direct result of the food experience? This would be consistent with a great deal of research showing that pleasant stimuli of all kinds produce positive moods, which in turn might be described using words such as ‘cheerful’, ‘energetic’ or ‘friendly’ – all terms that have been used in emotion questionnaires.</div>
<div style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; min-height: 18px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
Which brings us to another important issue: just how many emotions are there and how do we decide which ones to measure? On the basis of detailed cross-cultural comparisons, Ekman [<a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_3%22%20%5Co%20%22Ekman,%201971%20#3066%22">3</a>] for example has argued for the universality of a small number of emotions – happiness, anger, disgust, fear, sadness and surprise – and their associated facial expressions. If this is true, then it may be that your ‘cheerful’ is the same as my ‘friendly’, and that we actually both mean ‘happy’. In other words, perhaps these terms are all highly correlated with something called ‘positivity’. Searching for such key descriptors is not unlike the search for non-redundant terms in describing the sensory properties of products. But it is a more complex task to determine if a consumer’s rating of an emotion as irrelevant to their food experience represents actual lack of feeling or a poor fit between the word and what is actually felt. And that’s even without considering such seemingly bizarre concepts as “guilty pleasure”.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
An emotion, though, is not just an internal feeling that needs a label. William James raised the question over a century ago of whether the other aspects of emotions – physiological responses and facial expressions – might not actually be primary, in that they precede the subjective feeling. To paraphrase his argument, do we run from a bear because we are afraid or are we afraid because we run from the bear? If the latter (and see [<a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_4%22%20%5Co%20%22Strack,%201988%20#6622%22">4</a>] for evidence of this), then either facial expressions or the physiological correlates of emotions might be more direct measures of responses to foods.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 12px;">
While measuring facial expressions could be considered a more objective means of getting directly at emotions because they can be objectively verified, it is not true that expressions are spontaneous. We all manage our expressions, masking or modulating them depending on the context (or culture) we are in – a skill that is evident even in 3 year olds. Moreover, just how finely are smiles/frowns gradated? More than a 9 point liking scale? In a recent study [<a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_5%22%20%5Co%20%22Danner,%202013%20#6439%22">5</a>], automated readings of positive (happy), neutral and negative (angry, disgusted) emotions in response to juice samples tracked ratings on a 9-point hedonic scale quite closely. In fact, the facial readings were able to differentiate between the samples, but not to a degree better than the scale.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; margin-bottom: 12px;">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 12px;">
<span style="font-size: 16px;">Measures of physiology in response to foods are at a similar state of progress. Food scientists are now in many ways tackling some of the same issues that William James did at the end of the 19</span><span style="font-size: 14px;"><sup>th</sup></span><span style="font-size: 16px;"> century. Psychologists have recognized for the past century that quite different emotions share common physiological traits – e.g., both fear and anger are associated with increased heart rate. Following James, later theories of emotion emphasized the role that cognitions – interpretations – had in determining which emotional quality was associated with particular physiological changes for a given context. This was compellingly shown in Schacter and Singer’s classic 1962 experiment on the role of expectations in emotions [</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_6%22%20%5Co%20%22Schachter,%201962%20#641" style="font-size: 16px;">6</a><span style="font-size: 16px;">]. They showed that physiological arousal produced by an injection of epinephrine (adrenalin) could be interpreted as consistent with either anger or excitement, depending entirely on the context to which the subject was subsequently exposed. While there are good data showing that foods do elicit changes in physiology [</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_7%22%20%5Co%20%22de%20Wijk,%202012%20#6421%22" style="font-size: 16px;">7</a><span style="font-size: 16px;">], once again the ability of these changes to predict food choice is unknown. In any case, the context in which the food is experienced is likely to be crucial.</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px; min-height: 19px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16px;">
My feeling is that there are a few years left in old liking scale yet. If we don’t receive sensory pleasure from a food, it is more than likely doomed to be a single purchase item; but the converse is not true. Liking therefore might best be seen as a measure that is necessary, but not sufficient, to predict food choices. The search is really for complementary measures that add some predictive power. The fact that emotion research has yet to add this tells us only that some key questions are in need of answers and that it is premature to expect successful applications without more basic research.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13px; min-height: 15px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13px;">
_____________________________________________________________________</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13px; min-height: 15px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Cardello, A.V., et al., <i>Measuring emotional responses to foods and food names using questionnaires.</i> Food Qual Pref, 2012. <b>24</b>: p. 243-250.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Ng, M., C. Chaya, and J. Hort, <i>Beyond liking: Comparing the measurement of emotional response using EsSense Profile and consumer defined check-all-that-apply methodologies.</i> Food Qual Pref, 2013. <b>28</b>: p. 193-205.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Ekman, P. and W.V. Friesen, <i>Constants across cultures in the face and emotions.</i> J. Pers.Soc. Psychol., 1971. <b>17</b>(2): p. 124-129.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
4.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Strack, F., L.L. Martin, and S. Stepper, <i>Inhibiting and Facilitating Conditions of the Human Smile: A Nonobtrusive Test of the Facial Feedback Hypothesis.</i> J Pers Soc Psychol, 1988. <b>54</b>(5): p. 768-777.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
5.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Danner, L., et al., <i>Make a face! Implicit and explicit measurement of facial expressions elicited by orange juices using face reading technology.</i> Food Qual Pref, 2013 (in press).</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
6.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Schachter, S. and J. Singer, <i>Cognitive, Social, and Physiological Determinants of Emotional State. </i>Psych Rev, 1962. <b>69</b>: p. 379-399.</div>
<div style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
7.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>de Wijk, R.A., et al., <i>Autonomic nervous system responses on and facial expressions to the sight, smell, and taste of liked and disliked foods.</i> Food Qual Pref, 2012. <b>26</b>: p. 196-203.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-37993630120828995942013-08-23T17:55:00.000+10:002013-08-23T17:55:05.292+10:00Implicit implications<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>JA</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
<w:UseFELayout/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="276">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]-->
<!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<!--StartFragment-->
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<h4>
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">How do you know
what you know? Much of what we do and the decisions that we make are based on knowledge
or attitudes that are accessed without conscious effort. Hence, driving a car
would be impossible if we continuously needed to think about each step of the
process. Experienced doctors are able to make snap decisions by ‘reading’ a patient
and their health without going through an explicit mental checklist. It is all
part of the process of the automation of perception and reaction that is
characteristics of expertise.</span></span></h4>
<h4>
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;"><br /><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">Expertise comes
in a variety of forms. In one sense, we are all experts regarding the products
we use or consume. Food psychologist EP Koster has often made the point that we
instantly know when a food company has tampered with our favourite marmalade,
even if we are not sure exactly what has changed. Experimentally, too, this was
shown in a study in which very small amounts of tastants (sweet, sour, bitter)
were added to foods (cream cheese, orange juice, yoghurt) that had been sampled
earlier in the day. Asked to compare the new versions with those they had
consumed earlier, the participants were especially sensitive to any negative
change produced by minimal increases in bitterness, even though it is unlikely
that would have been able to articulate what exactly the change was </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-family:Calibri'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Koster</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>3150</RecNum><DisplayText>[1]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>3150</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN" db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt">3150</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal
Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Koster,
M. A.</author><author>Prescott, J.</author><author>Koster,
E. P.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Koster,
EP&#xD;Wildforsterweg 4A, NL-3881 NJ Putten,
Netherlands&#xD;Wildforsterweg 4A, NL-3881 NJ Putten,
Netherlands&#xD;Univ Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands&#xD;Univ Otago,
Dunedin, New Zealand&#xD;Royal Vet &amp; Agr Univ, Copenhagen,
Denmark</auth-address><titles><title>Incidental learning and
memory for three basic tastes in food</title><secondary-title>Chem.
Senses</secondary-title><alt-title>Chem
Senses</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Chem.
Senses</full-title><abbr-1>Chemical Senses</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Chem
Senses</full-title></alt-periodical><pages>441-453</pages><volume>29</volume><number>5</number><keywords><keyword>food
expectancy</keyword><keyword>incidental
learning</keyword><keyword>memory psychophysics</keyword><keyword>taste
memory</keyword><keyword>mental
mixtures</keyword><keyword>implicit
memory</keyword><keyword>odor</keyword><keyword>psychophysics</keyword><keyword>acquisition</keyword><keyword>primacy</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2004</year><pub-dates><date>Jun</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0379-864X</isbn><accession-num>ISI:000222123800008</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>&lt;Go
to ISI&gt;://000222123800008</url></related-urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>Doi
10.1093/Chemse/Bjh047</electronic-resource-num><language>English</language></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">[<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6237138443113430119#_ENREF_1" title="Koster, 2004 #3150"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">1</span></a>]</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-family:Calibri'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">. In other words, they were retrieving
implicit rather than explicit information.</span></span></h4>
<h4>
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;"><o:p></o:p></span><br /><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">In some cases, information
is encoded implicitly in the first place, and our behavior and preferences can
be shaped by experiences with stimuli that never entered conscious awareness. Thus,
the ingenious study of the German recipients of formula milk to which vanilla
had been added showed that these experiences were influential in determining a
food choice (ketchup with or without a tiny amount of added vanilla) even 30
years later </span><!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US style='font-family:
Calibri'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Haller</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>2820</RecNum><DisplayText>[2]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2820</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN"
db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt">2820</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Haller,
R.</author><author>Rummel,
C.</author><author>Henneberg,
S.</author><author>Pollmer, U.</author><author>Koster,
E.P.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The
influence of early experience with vanillin on food preference later in life
</title><secondary-title>Chem. Senses</secondary-title><alt-title>Chemical
Senses</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Chem.
Senses</full-title><abbr-1>Chemical
Senses</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Chem.
Senses</full-title><abbr-1>Chemical
Senses</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>465-467</pages><volume>24</volume><number>4</number><keywords><keyword>exposure</keyword><keyword>implicit
learning</keyword><keyword>preferences</keyword><keyword>hedonics</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1999</year></dates><urls><pdf-urls><url>file://localhost/Users/admin/WORD%20DOCUMENTS/PUBLICATIONS/TASTE%20MATTERS/RESOURCES/EXPOSURE/Haller.pdf</url></pdf-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">[<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6237138443113430119#_ENREF_2" title="Haller, 1999 #2820"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">2</span></a>]</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-family:Calibri'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">.<br /> <o:p></o:p></span><br /><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">Consumer
research of any kind is aimed at retrieving knowledge that is assumed to be at
the consumer’s fingertips. But what if it isn’t? Social psychologists sometimes
study phenomena in which an ‘honest’ answer can not be assumed. Thus, if asked
questions about our own attitudes to other races, there is enormous internal
pressure to conform to cultural norms, even if we know that the information
won’t get further than the researcher’s computer. We do not like to admit even
to ourselves that we have attitudes that would meet universal disapproval if
voiced.<br /> </span><br /><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">Consumer
researchers sometimes have the same concerns, although this is more motivated
by the fact that ratings of liking for, say, a new product is a poor predictor
of how well that product will actually do in the marketplace. The rather
illogical response is sometimes to blame the consumer: they are obviously stubbornly
not revealing their true attitudes towards the product. One consequence is the
search for “objective” measures of liking such as brain scanning - as though
there was a blind alley between “the brain” and the mouth down which honest
opinions get sent.</span></span></h4>
<h4>
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;"><br /><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">One approach to
the problem of retrieving attitudes taken by social psychologists has been the
development of the <i>Implicit Association
Test</i> (IAT). This is based on the assumption, not that people’s responses
are inherently dishonest, but that there may be attitudes that are not
explicitly or consciously available or that are difficult to put into words.
The technique works by exploiting the fact that responses to things that belong
together (words; objects) are faster than when there is a disconnect between
them. So, if I flashed up pairs of words on a screen and asked you to instantly
press a key, your response to “mother + father” would be quicker than to
“mother + sheep”. Now, as the social psychologists do, imagine if I flashed up the
name of another race (you decide which!) plus either of the words ‘dumb’ or
‘smart’. Any difference in reaction times between these two words paired with
the race would reveal attitudes without ever having to ask a question about
racial beliefs.</span></span></h4>
<h4>
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;"><br /><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">As one example,
I previously (</span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"><a href="http://prescotttastematters.blogspot.com.au/2012/12/le-topic-du-jour-gout-qui-importe.html"><span style="color: #2b61c2; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Le topic du
jour: Gout qui importe</span></a></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">; December, 2012) reported the distinction
between French and American consumers in their attitudes towards food tastiness
and health, the results of an IAT study that compared responses to the terms
“tasty” with “healthy” and “unhealthy”.</span></span></h4>
<h4>
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;"><br /><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">The pairings in
the IAT do not need to be words but can also be visual images such as labels, people,
places or events. For instance, the IAT was recently applied to examining the
fit between marketing slogans and their associated products. Pairings of the
words “gentle” and “powerful” with images of the bottles of different brands of
mouthwash showed that consumers had internalized the marketing messages of each
company. Responses to the mouthwash that marketed itself as gentle were fastest
when the bottle image was paired with this label than when paired with
“powerful”; conversely, the word “powerful” produced the faster reactions times
when paired with the bottle of the other brand, again consistent with its
marketing </span><!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US style='font-family:
Calibri'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>ADDIN EN.CITE
<EndNote><Cite><Author>Parise</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>6418</RecNum><DisplayText>[3]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>6418</rec-number><foreign-keys><key
app="EN"
db-id="rdex9dds9w9e0te5eexxzw23p9d92x9awvpt">6418</key></foreign-keys><ref-type
name="Journal
Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Parise,
C.</author><author>Spence,
C.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Assessing
the associations between brand packaging and brand attributes using an indirect
performance measure</title><secondary-title>Food Qual Pref</secondary-title><alt-title>Food
Quality and Preference</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Food
Qual
Pref</full-title></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Food
Quality and Preference</full-title><abbr-1>Food Qual Prefer</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>17-23</pages><volume>24</volume><keywords><keyword>Implicit
association
test</keyword><keyword>IAT</keyword><keyword>labels</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote><span
style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">[<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6237138443113430119#_ENREF_3" title="Parise, 2012 #6418"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">3</span></a>]</span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=EN-US style='font-family:Calibri'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">.</span></span></h4>
<h4>
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;"><o:p></o:p></span><br /><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">There are
indications that measuring implicit responses is being increasingly recognized
in sensory consumer science. At the recent <i>Pangborn
Symposium</i> in Rio de Janeiro (see: <a href="http://www.pangborn2013.com/">http://www.pangborn2013.com</a>)
several presentations focused on measures of implicit reactions to products,
including the measurement of emotions – currently one of the current hot topics
in sensory/consumers research – using the IAT. Other reported implicit measures
included the measurement of facial responses, although the extent to which
these might be consciously controlled is an important methodological issue.</span></span></h4>
<h4>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large; font-weight: normal;"><br /></span></h4>
<h4>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large; font-weight: normal;">One potential
next step is to include product tasting with the IAT and assess the extent to
which the product’s sensory and functional properties is congruent with the
product image and concept. The final plenary talk at the 2013 Pangborn
discussed the issue of fit between a product’s </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large; font-weight: normal;">conceptual profile
(essentially the set of associations and emotions that it evokes) and its sensory
properties, noting that the degree of alignment of the two equates to whether
or not a product ‘fit-to-brand’. The conclusion was that</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: large; font-weight: normal;"> significant mismatch between a product’s
conceptual profile and what it actually delivers to the consumer presents a serious
risk that the product will fail [4]. </span></h4>
<h4>
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;"><br /><o:p></o:p></span><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></u></span></h4>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-weight: normal; text-indent: -36pt;">1. <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6237138443113430119" name="_ENREF_1" style="font-weight: normal; text-indent: -36pt;">Koster, M.A.,
J. Prescott, and E.P. Koster, <i>Incidental
learning and memory for three basic tastes in food.</i> Chem. Senses, 2004. 29(5): p. 441-453.</a></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6237138443113430119" name="_ENREF_2">2. Haller, R., et
al., <i>The influence of early experience
with vanillin on food preference later in life </i>Chem. Senses, 1999. 24(4): p. 465-467.</a></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6237138443113430119" name="_ENREF_3">3. Parise, C. and
C. Spence, <i>Assessing the associations
between brand packaging and brand attributes using an indirect performance
measure.</i> Food Qual Pref, 2012. 24:
p. 17-23.</a></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;">4. </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri; font-weight: normal;">Thomson, D. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">The application of conceptual profiling in brand,
product and packaging development. 10<sup>th</sup> Pangborn Sensory Science
Symposium, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil, 11-15<sup>th</sup> August, 2013.</span><span style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 6pt 36pt; text-indent: -36pt;">
</div>
</h4>
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 6pt 36pt; text-indent: -36pt;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
</h4>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<!--EndFragment--><br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<!--[if supportFields]><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:
Calibri;mso-fareast-font-family:"MS 明朝";mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast;
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><!--EndFragment--></div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-67175733828993387752013-07-26T14:16:00.000+10:002013-07-26T22:13:36.550+10:00Absolutely love it! … relatively speaking<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">You can never go back. I had an opportunity recently to take a sip of a wine that I used to happily drink some … ok, many ….years ago. A sip was more than enough! The shame of it was that the amount of pleasure I can get from an excellent wine now is probably no greater than the pleasure that <i>Chateau Chunder</i> (ok, not <span style="text-decoration: underline;"><i>that</i></span> bad) gave me all those years ago. </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pleasure is relative … not only to our current state of mind, but to recent experiences as well. In an excellent discussion of this phenomenon, Parducci [<a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_1%22%20%5Co%20%22Parducci,%201995%20#6476%22">1</a>] analysed the impact of recent experience on how happy we feel. How happy would you be to find $10 on the street? Let me ask you another question before you answer: are you just stepping out of your <i>Ferrari</i> or on your way to the unemployment office? Alternatively, imagine you find $20 on the street every day for a month ….. how do you feel if one day there’s only $10? In both cases, the context (your financial state or your recent experiences) provides the background that determines the degree of pleasure that you are likely to experience.</span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Our sensory experiences are not exempt from context effects either. Another balmy 19</span><span style="font-size: 20px;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;">C (66 F</span><span style="font-size: large;">) day. Now, depending on where you live, you might agree with me or alternatively consider that it’s me who’s balmy. The fact is, I have given you a piece of information and an interpretation, but what is missing is to know where I am at present, and hence the season</span><span style="font-size: large;">*</span><span style="font-size: large;">. These extra details allow you to place both the information and my interpretation in context. Most of us at some time have eaten a dish that is just too hot (spicy). Part of this may be due to the physiological impact of recent chilli eating, or lack thereof. But mostly, it will be a mental comparison of the heat of the spicy dishes that you have had recently with what you are eating now [<a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_2%22%20%5C">2</a>].</span></span></span></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Each of these examples show how any given sensory or emotional experiences occurs against a background of other similar recent experiences. From the perspective of wanting to measure sensory or hedonic experiences, context effects are not merely an interesting quirk – they are the main game. All human measurement is relative. Even a simple question of deciding whether or not you like a beverage is really a case of liking it “compared to what”. In evaluating consumer preferences for foods or beverages, the common scenario is that multiple samples – different brands or different versions of a product – are compared at each tasting session. In the less common situation, though, that a single product was rated for liking, we would expect that the point of comparison was the consumer’s prior, and especially recent, experiences with that class of product [<a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_3%22%20%5Co%20%22Walter,%202009%20#2991%22">3</a>]. </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When multiple products are compared within the same evaluation session, the products are compared relative to one another. One consequence of the influence of context in ratings is that a given product can be given a low or a high liking rating entirely as a function of what other products are in the evaluation [<a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_4%22%20%5Co%20%22Schifferstein,%201995%20#1267%22">4</a>]. To take an obvious (and unrealistic) example, imagine that you are asked to rate your liking for different flavours of jelly-beans: orange, lime, blueberry, banana, and … tomato. The latter is obviously an odd sample (despite being a fruit) and is likely to be rated lower. Next, however, I ask you to rate your liking for the following jelly-bean flavours: spinach, brussel sprouts, potato, cabbage, and …. tomato. Here, I imagine that the tomato flavour would be a winner. </span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It is crucial to understand the implications of context effects if consumer data are not to be misused. Many food companies have in the past, and to a lesser extent still today, relied on fixed acceptability ratings as criteria for action. For example, on the standard 9-point hedonic scale, a mean rating of 7 (representing “<i>like moderately</i>”) in consumer testing may be required to launch a product. Since any given number on a rating scale can only really be understood in relation to the ratings given other products, there is no validity to adopting such a value. Ironically, dogmatic reliance on such cutoff values is a key reason why there is resistance in industry to adopting new approaches to measurement. </span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A key theoretical question about context effects is whether they reflect actual subjective experience or occur due to the way we use rating scales. One of the main explanations for context effects is <i>Adaptation Level Theory</i> which suggests that we adapt to the changing environment, establishing a reference level against which intensity/pleasure is judged [<a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_5%22%20%5Co%20%22Helson,%201947%20#6477%22">5</a>]. This approach has many parallels to sensory adaptation (e.g, adapting to be able to see in a dark room) and leaves open the possibility that context alters experience. The <i>Range-Frequency Theory</i> on the other hand is a theory of how we use rating scales [<a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_6%22%20%5Co%20%22Parducci,%201974%20#988%22">6</a>]. This theory suggests that when faced with the task of rating the intensity or pleasantness of a stimulus range (e.g., products varying along some dimension), we mentally divide the scale into equal intervals, and distribute the ratings over these intervals. Thus, context effects are due to the range of stimulus values and the frequency of each value. </span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There are certainly data to support range-frequency theory but clearly I do not need a rating scale to judge whether or not I am happy – to greater or lesser degrees - at finding $20 on the street. That’s an unusual, and positive event. Once this has happened 20 times though, it becomes the norm against which daily events are judged. Tomorrow’s $20 may not even evoke a smile, and $10 in its place may even leave me a little annoyed.</span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Food consumers, too, experience the same phenomenon. And this may give rise to an interesting paradox in which favourite foods – as reflected in recent, repeat consumption – do not evoke particularly strong positive emotions. A relatively new field in consumer research is the measurement of a wider range of emotions beyond liking. Understanding the impact of context effects in such measures is clearly an important step before their widespread application. Moreover, while sensory acceptability is crucial, there are other reasons why we consume. These include feeling of comfort or security. Perhaps these motivations are exempt from the effects of context, but as yet we don’t know.</span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">[ * The missing bit is ‘Sydney in winter’ and, though making you envious is far from my mind, I need to point out that, yes, it’s often 19 C]</span></div>
<div style="font-size: 12px; min-height: 14px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12px;">
<span style="text-decoration: underline;">_______________________________________________________________________________________________________</span></div>
<div style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 13px; min-height: 15px;">
<span style="font-family: Arial; text-indent: -36px;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="min-height: 15px;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="text-indent: -36px;">1.</span><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="text-indent: -36px; white-space: pre;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -36px;">Parducci, A., </span><i style="text-indent: -36px;">Happiness, Pleasure and Judgment, </i><span style="text-indent: -36px;">1995, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.</span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 6px; text-indent: -36px;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Stevenson, R.J. and J. Prescott, <i>The Effects of Prior Experience with Capsaicin on Ratings of Its Burn.</i> Chem. Senses, 1994. <b>19</b>(6): p. 651-656.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 6px; text-indent: -36px;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Walter, F. and R.A. Boakes, <i>Long-term range effects in hedonic ratings.</i> Food Qual. Pref., 2009. <b>20</b>: p. 440-449.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 6px; text-indent: -36px;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">4.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Schifferstein, H.N.J., <i>Contextual shifts in hedonic judgments.</i> J. Sens. Stud., 1995. <b>10</b>: p. 381-392.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 6px; text-indent: -36px;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">5.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Helson, H., <i>Adaptation-level as frame of reference for prediction of psychophysical data.</i> Am J Psychol, 1947. <b>60</b>(1): p. 1-29.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 6px; margin-left: 36px; margin-top: 6px; text-indent: -36px;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">6.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Parducci, A., <i>Contextual effects: A range-frequency analysis</i>, in <i>Handbook of Perception Vol. II. Psychophysical Judgment and Measurement</i>, E.C. Carterette and M.P. Friedman, Editors. 1974, Academic Press: New York. p. 127-141.</span></div>
<br /></div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6237138443113430119.post-15340968259169434982013-06-16T03:36:00.000+10:002013-06-16T03:36:45.647+10:00Full of MSG<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px;">
Like everyone, I suppose, I find myself receiving email updates from websites I once consulted and would otherwise have forgotten. One of these is <a href="http://www.alllooksame.com/"><span style="color: #0433ff;">www.alllooksame.com</span></a> which, as far as I can gather, started life dealing with questions of Asian identity. But for some time it has also been debating the question: just how dangerous is that common combination of sodium and glutamic acid – monosodium glutamate (MSG)? On the one hand, are those whose posts - correctly - point out that the (good) published studies fail to find adverse effects of MSG consumption over and above effects produced by a placebo. In response, the contrary viewpoints tend to have a much more personal tone, based on experiences that they attribute to this alleged toxin. A recent post illustrates this:</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px; min-height: 16px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px;">
<i><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>“MSG is highly dangerous. For me, I didn't used to get reactions, but <span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>after decades of eating this stuff, now get raging migraines, heart fibrillation, insomnia, blurry vision, all from accidentally eating MSG in foods. …. As you age, you … start having to deal with some neuro <span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>damage from the stuff. I've seen family members, constant eaters of Chinese restaurant food, now have all sorts of neuro-degenerative issues …”</i></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px; min-height: 16px;">
<i></i><br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px;">
The origins of such beliefs make for an interesting study of how worries about modern foods combine with a fear of environmental toxins to create anxiety that requires a convenient place to be attached – in this case, MSG acts as the “hook”. </div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px; min-height: 16px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px;">
From a scientific point of view, the question of MSG toxicity/allergy is largely settled in the negative. However, considerable interest remains in the question of why glutamate acts so reliably as a flavor enhancer. It is straightforward to demonstrate, for example, that savoury foods containing added MSG are evaluated as having greater flavor intensity as well as being more liked [<a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_1%22%20%5Co%20%22Fuke,%201993%20#115">1</a>]. In this regard, MSG acts much like fat and sugar and this analogy has been used to in studies in which MSG has been used to promote liking for novel flavours.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px; min-height: 16px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px;">
Repeatedly pairing MSG with a novel flavor in solution results in that flavor becoming more liked [<a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_2%22%20%5Co%20%22Prescott,%202004%20#2799%22">2</a>], which is the same effect produced by either fat or sugar. The proposed mechanism for these latter preference boosters is based on the use of the energy provided by fats and sugars by the body, converting the otherwise ‘meaningless’ flavor into a (liked) signal that energy is being delivered. This is variously referred to as ‘post-ingestive’ or ‘flavour-nutrient’ conditioning. Either way, the idea is that a link is learned between the flavor and a positive consequence of ingesting something that is valued by the body. This argument is well supported by demonstrations that these conditioned learning effects only occur when the energy/flavor pairings happen in a state of relative hunger – that is, when the energy is most valued.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px; min-height: 16px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px;">
So, is glutamate an energy source, like sugar and fat? Possibly, although there is also evidence that the glutamate that we take in our diet is used for a variety of important metabolic processes [<a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_4%22%20%5Co%20%22Reeds,%202000%20#3016%22">4</a>] that could underlie the conditioned liking. Another persistent hypothesis is that the presence of glutamate is a signal to our bodies for the presence of protein. This makes intuitive sense, since glutamic acid is a key amino acid present in proteins. But while there has yet to be convincing evidence for one hypothesis over another, any or all of these effects could support flavor preferences.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px; min-height: 16px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px;">
Regular readers will recall the distinction made between liking and wanting <span style="color: #444444;">(October, 2012: <i>Learning to want</i></span>). More recent research has shown that not only does the presence of MSG promote novel flavours into preferred ones, it acts also on motivation to eat, that is, wanting. Flavours conditioned with MSG increase appetite and promote increased consumption of the flavoured foods, at least in the short term [<a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_3%22%20%5Co%20%22Y">3</a>]. A recent publication by Una Masic and Martin Yeomans from the University of Sussex has explored further the effects that added glutamate may have on how we eat [<a href="http://www.blogger.com/%5Cl%20%22_ENREF_5%22%20%5Co%20%22Masic,%202013%20#6428%22">5</a>]. They first raise the possibility that since glutamate makes food more palatable, we might expect increased intake of glutamate enhanced foods over the longer term. </div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px; min-height: 16px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px;">
It is well known that palatable foods produce an initial appetizer effect – that is, appetite and intake increases following our first bite. Masic and Yeomans hypothesized that adding glutamate to foods also has an effect on short-term satiety and the longer-term satiation:</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px;">
<i>“MSG may lead to reduced satiation (as a consequence of its effects on palatability) but enhanced satiety, by acting as a cue for protein ingestion”.</i></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px; min-height: 16px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px;">
In investigating this question, the researchers prepared three soups: a control that was low in energy, a more energy dense version and another that was higher in protein, each with or without added MSG. Initially, hunger decreased but only when there was no added MSG, and only in the context of added protein. To put this another way, adding MSG to a protein enhanced soup maintained hunger. Assessing hunger ratings for a longer period of two hours after the soup was consumed showed, as predicted, a significant suppression of hunger at least for the first hour after consumption. This time it was when MSG had been added, but again this was only evident in the protein enhanced version. </div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px; min-height: 16px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px;">
These data suggest a very important role for glutamate in regulating food intake, at least for protein-based foods. In doing this, the data also enhance the link to protein signaling, proposed as an explanation for glutamate palatability. Satiety and satiation are known to be influenced both by the nutrients present in foods and by a food’s palatability. This study steps up the complexity a notch by showing how an ingredient that affects palatability can modulate both processes when it interacts with the nutrients in the food. We know already that taste (in the broad sense of the term) is the best predictor of what we eat. This study suggests too that <i>a</i> taste (in the narrow, more technical sense) can also be a strong influence of how much we eat and when we are likely to feel hunger again.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px; min-height: 16px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px;">
As a final thought, it is worth considering how those who brand MSG a toxin could possibly account for glutamate’s complex influence on appetite, hunger and palatability. Increasing food preferences and intake is usually considered incompatible with neuro-(or any other kind of)toxicity.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px;">
__________________________________________________________________</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Fuke, S. and T. Shimizu, <i>Sensory and preference aspects of umami.</i> Trends Food Sci. Technol., 1993. <b>4</b>: p. 246-251.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Prescott, J., <i>Effects of added glutamate on liking for novel food flavors.</i> Appetite, 2004. <b>42</b>(2): p. 143-150.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Yeomans, M.R., et al., <i>Acquired flavor acceptance and intake facilitated by monosodium glutamate in humans.</i> Physiol. Behav., 2008. <b>93</b>: p. 958-966.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
4.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Reeds, P.J., et al., <i>Intestinal glutamate metabolism.</i> J. Nutrit., 2000. <b>130</b>: p. 978S-982S.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 36px; text-indent: -36px;">
5.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Masic, U. and M. Yeomans, <i>Does monosodium glutamate interact with macronutrient composition to influence subsequent appetite?</i> Physiol Behav, 2013. <b>116-117</b>: p. 23-29.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; min-height: 15px;">
<br /></div>
</div>
John Prescott, PhDhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04876942200752092587noreply@blogger.com0